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THE
CYCLOPADIA;
oR,
Universal Dictionary
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.
VOL. XIII.
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MAOUTARATIO, 4p. 22 4ATIEM
THE
CYCLOPA Dia;
OR,
UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY
OF
Arts, Sciences, and Literature,
BY
ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soe.
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.
ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,
BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.
re IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES. . VOL. XIII. SE — ae LONDON:
Printep ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, PaTernoster-Row,
F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A.STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL, CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH, CADELL AND DAVIES, 8S. BAGSTER, Je MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, Re SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO., J» DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, EK. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING,.
1819.
1
CFCOLOP 4D EA:
OR, A NEW
UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS and SCIENCES.
ELOCUTION.
LOCUTION is a term which, according to the ftriG- uefs of etymological definition, might be applied to fignify every thing that is included in the faculty and utterance of thought, by the means of language, whether oral or writ- ten; and fome writers, even in modern times, have applied it, with more attention apparently to derivation than to authorized precifion and neceflary contradiftin@ion, to writ- ten compofition as well as to actual fpeech. At the fame time, two other terms, oratory and eloquence, (which ety- mological refinement might undoubtedly reduce to the fame original fignification,) have admittance and current ufage in our language, and are occafionally ufed as fynonyma of elocution in our loofer converfation. But every copious fubje&, when it comes to be treated in a dida@tic way, re- quires more terms of fettled diftin€tion than the fimplicity of rigid etymology can be expeted to furnifh; and ‘ many terms which, in the laxity of general converfation, are in- differently and indiftinéily ufed, in the precifion of fcientific difcuffion mutt be carefully feparated and placed in contra- diftin@lion: the very admiffion of fynonyms being perfe&tly inconfiftent with the progre{s and comprehenfion of {cientific truth.”
Thefe three terms, therefore,.in the very outfet of the prefent fubject, fhould be clearly and diftinétly defined, and the boundaries of fignification effignable to each, as terms of contradiftinGtion, be precifely marked. This has accord- ingly been done by a popular leGturer of the prefent day. «¢ Eloquence,” fays he, ‘* may be defined, ‘the art of expref- fing our thoughts and feelings with precifion, force, and ele- gance; and of heightening the impreflions of reafon by the colourings of imagination.” It is applicable, therefore, to the whole faculty of verbal difcourfe, whether oral or writ- ten. It addreffes itfelf by the pen, to the eye, as well as by the living organs to the ear. Thus we {peak (with ad-
Vou, XIII.
Strahan and Prefion, New-freet Square, London,
mitted accuracy ) of an eloquent book, as freely as of an eloz quent oration; of the eloquent Buffon (alluding to his cele- brated work upon natural hiftory); and of the eloqueat writings, as well as the eloquent fpeeches of Edmurd Burke, The Apoftrophe to the queen of France, is as genuine a piece of eloquence as if it had been {poken in the houfe of commons.
Oratory, on the contrary, is precife and limited in its application : and, in this refpeét, indeed, even popular ufage is pretty generally corre&t. It may be defined, * oral elo- quence ; or the art of communicating, by the immediate ac- tion of the vocal and expreffive organs, to popular, or to fele& affemblies, the di@ates of our reafon, or our will, and- the workings of our paffions, our feelings, and our imagina- tions.” Oratory, therefore, includes the idea of eloquence : for no man can be an orator who hath not an affluence of thought and language. But eloquence does not neceflarily include the idea of oratory; fince a man may be rich in all the flores of language and of thought, without poffeffing the advantages of a graceful and impreffive delivery. It is, therefore, the name of a more complex idea; and includes, befides the general notion of eloquence, the praGtical part of elocution:. which being our immediate objeé&t, mutt be {poken of more at large. ‘ Elocution may be regarded either as a fcience, or as an at. In the former cafe it may be defined, * the fcience by which the rules for the juft de- livery of eloquence are taught ;”” in the latter, * the happy combination and coincidence of vocal, enunciative, and gef- ticulative expreffion, by which oratorical excitement is fuper- added to the eloquence of thought and language.” In other words: ‘* Elocution is the art, or the a& of fo de- livering our own thoughts and fentiments, or the thoughts and fentiments ‘of others, as not only to convey to thofe: around us (with precifiog, force, and harmony) the fuil’
B. purport
ELOCUTION.
purport and meaning of the words and fentences in which thofe thoughts are clothed; but, alfo, to excite and imprefs wpon their minds, the feelings, the imaginations, and the -paffions, by which thofe thoughts are diated, or with which they fhould naturally be accompanied.”
“ Elocution, therefore, inits more ample and liberal fig- nification, is not confined to the mere exercife of the organs -of fpeech. It embraces the whole theory and praétice of the exterior demonttration of the inward workings of the mind.’ In fhert, ‘* eloquence may be confidered as the foul, or animating principle of difcourfe ; and is dependent on intelleétual energy and intelle&tual attainments. Elocu- tion is the embodying form, or reprefentative power; de- pendent on exterior accomplifhment, and cultivation of the organs. Oratory is the complicated and vital exiltence re- fulting from the perfeét harmony and combination of the two.”’
The objeé&t, then, of the fcieace of elocution is the im- provement of oral language, as contradiftinguifhed from mere graphic compolition ; and the cultivation of every ex- ternal grace and accomplifhment with which the delivery of language fhould be accompanied,, whether in »reading, in recitation, or in fpontaneous, utterance: an object, to the attainment of which the ancients devoted a very confider- able portion of attention; and for the due comprehenfion of which, it appears to be neceflary to go fomewhat deeper in our refearches into the phyfical and moral powers of man, than has been fufpected by the generality of modern pro- feffors; and inttead of calling in queftion, as fome recent cavillers have done, whether elocution is even to be regarded as an art, to eftablifh its doétrines on the fettled principles of {cience, and demonttrate the effential. elements of that Acience as.a branch of natural philofophy. To the want of this due confideration of the fubjeét, and to the incongruous maxims relative to it, are perhaps to be attributed not only the frequency of every fpecies of difgufting impediment in modern {peech, but the lame and impotent. ftate of public {peaking among us, when compared in its effects with the {plendid and impreflive oratory of ancient times. ‘* In thofe parts of oratory, indeed, whith relate to the arrangements of thought, and the energies of expreffive language, there is no deficiency of exilting models; and, certainly, no paucity whatever of pedantic rules and treatifes. Cicero and De- motthenes flill continue to, fpeak to the eye, in all the elo- quence of graphic words; and Quintilian and Blair. (like two confpicuous luminaries, in the ancient and modern ‘h-mi- {pheres of oratorical critici{m) tlumine the tracks of written language, and may help to inform us how orations fhould be compofed. In this part of oratory, the prefent and the preceding gencration have, accordingly, fomething to boalt. But for the theory and praétice of thofe impreflive exterior demonitrations with which the delivery of {uch orations fhould be accompanied, to what fyftems, or to what models can the Englifh ftudent appeal? In fhort, eloquence has been cultivated among us with confiderable diligence; but elocution has been fo much neglected, that the very nature of the f{cience feems to be entirely forgotten ; and the few fragments of antiquity that have defcended to us upon the fubje&, are evidently mifunderftood by thofe who have pre- tended to comment upon them; and many of our moft learned critics have either ingenuoufly acknowledged, or un- warily betrayed, their total inability to comprehend fome of thofe very diftin@ions moft indifpenfable to the expreffion and harmony of oratorical delivery: fuch, for example, as the mufical accents of fpeech, or infleétions: of theiwoice in the harmonic fcale; the proportions of refpondent founds
: A
and cadences, and the effential contradiftin@tions of percuf- fion, accent, and quantity.”
Such is the language of the leturer already quoted; who, to refcue the elements of elocution from this flate of negle& and chaos, and to facilitate the general attainment of an accomplifhment fo generally defirable, proceeds, in his ‘¢ Introduétory Difeourfe,’”’ thus curforily to ftate the ex- tent and nature of the fubject.
«« Elocution,”’ fays he, “is, 1. Partly a fcience, founded on afcertainable principles, and fufceptible of palpable de- monttrations; 2. Partly an art, attainable by imitative ap- plication and obfervance ; and fubje& to fuch laws as refult from comparifon of general principles with praétical ex- perience ; and, 3. Partly an object of taite and feotiment, dependent on acutenefs of perception, and delicacy and re- finement of feeling.
1. ‘Asa {cience its foundations are to be fought, 1ft. In phyfiology ; that is to fay, in the anatomical ftruc- ture of the elocutionary organs, and the laws of phyfical ne- ceffity, by which their a€tions and reaétions are direGted and circum(cribed: fome knowledge of which feems to be indif- penfably requifite to the complete developement and exertion of their refpective powers; to the fupply of accidental and occafional deficiencies ; and to the correGion of thofe er- roneous and defective modes of utterance, which, originating in negligent or vicious imitation, have ripened into habitual impediments. 2d. In mufic, the efflential laws and accidents of which, with only one confpicuous exception ;”” the pro- grefs of the tune, in one inftance, being by flides or ac- centual infleGtions, * lifting the voice up and down in the mulical fcale ;”’ and in the other, by afccrtainable intervals and perceptible gradations; ‘* areas applicable to elocution as to fong: all fivent and harmonious {pecch (even that of the moft eafy and familiar converfation) as neceflarily and as) abfolutely falling into the rythmical divifion of mufical bars, and into the two generic meafures of common and of triple time, as the warblings of the moft fcientific finger on the ftage; while feveral of the impediments which molt ferioufly obftru& and deform the elocution»of injudicious fpeakers, may be preved to originate in no other caufe tham the viola- tion of thefe mufical principles, and the confequent refiftance: of thofe phyfical neceffities which limit the facilities of or-, ganic aétion, and with which the elementary principles of; harmonic proportion fo admirably and fo myfterioufly con- form. 3d. In philology, alfo, elocution hath a bafis, in- afmuch as to the philofophy of the ftru&ture and compofition, of language, and to the acute refearehes of the etymologift, many of thofe difputed queftions of pronunciation, quantity, and percuflive accent, which have hitherto been furrendered to the arbitrary and flu€tuating decifions of fafhien, ought,. in reality, to be referred.” : '
To which might have been added that the time of fpeech itfeif, is, or ought to be, a refult of philological perception :: the quantities, emphafes, and infleétions of fyllables, in all perfect {peech, being diftated by the fenfe and import of fuch fyllables ; eitherinherent in their original {tru€ture and: individual fignification, or derivable from fentiment and affo- ciation.
2. As anart, the laws of elocution are partly grammati-- cal, as arifing out of the flruéture and arrangement of fen-' tences, and the confequent degrees of connection and rela~ tionfhip between the different words and members and por- tions of the difcourfe to be pronounced ; partly harmonic, as conneéted with the praétical regulation’ of the variations and proportions of harmonic found, with which fuch difcourfe. fhould be accompanied ; and partly mechanical, or experi-
mental,
OO — a ee
ee tS
oe
ee
——o
ELOCUTION.
mental, as relating to the motions and pofitions of the re- f{petive oreans, by which the varieties of vocal and enuncia- tive expreffion are produced.
3. Asa matter of tafte, elocution embraces the confidera- tion of fuch peculiar habits of fludy, deportment, and affo- ciation, as are favourable to acutenefs and delicacy of fufcep- tibility, both in the intelle€tual and the organic fyftem, and give them their peculiar bias and direction. In this point of view, all the finer arts, and all the more intelle&tual accom- plifhments conftitute effential parts of the ftudies of the finifhed elocutionift. He fhould have an eye for the glowing tints and flowing linés 6f picture, the proportions of archi- teGture and the fymMetries of ftatuary ; an ear for the ravifh- ing delights of mufic: a perception of the vital graces of Jook and attitude and motion, far beyond all that the danc- ing fchool and the opera houfe can teach; and a /oul tremblingly alive to all the enthufiafm of poetry, and all the poignancy of fentiment and pathos.
In vindication of the claim of this fcience to fuch an am- ple field of illuftration and accomplifhment, an appeal may be made from modern maxims to the example of claffical an- tiquity, to the facts that ftand upon record, and the relics of ancient criticifm that yet remain: for although much in the outfet of the inquiry appeared to the leGurer in the light of original difcovery, further inveftigation, we are in- formed, ‘“‘ convinced him, that many of thofe doétrines, which he imagined to be new, are only .“ reftitutions of de- eayed intelligence :”” and what has, in reality, been added to the treafures that well-direGted labours might have redeemed from the overwhelmed ruins of claffical criticifm, is proba- bly confined to the phyfiological parts of the fubjeét, and the conneétion attempted to be traced between the primary Jawa of phyfical aétion and re-a@ion, and the elements of mufical proportion.”
Thefe, however, conftitute a very effential portion of the {cience of elocution; and the ftudent of that fcience muft begin, in the firft in‘tance, by inveftigating the ftru@ture and offices of thofe organs upon which the funétions of fpeech depend, which will be found to confilt of two diftin& claffes, the feparate a€tions and attributes of which, it is highly im- portant that the profeffor at leaft fhould accurately compre- hend, left by m ftaking the fource of the defeé&s to be re- moved, he fhould neceffarily failin the application of 'the remedy. Thefeare, r, the vocal organs, or thofe portions of the organic fyftem employed by the human (or other ani- mated) being inthe produétion and variation of expreflive founds; and, 2, the enunciative organs, which, inthe com- plication and perfection of their ftru€ture, are peculiar to man, and are employed in fuperadding to the founds of voice, certain other {pecificimpulles, conftituting thereby the ele- ments and fyllables out of which are compofed the whole mechanifm of human language.
When, however, thefe twoclaffes of organs are faid to be diftin&, that word is not to be underftood info abfolute afenfe, az to preclude the fuppofition of fome of them dif- ¢gharging the two-fold office of modifying the tune and fu- peredding the {pecific quality of literal element. The nof- trils; for example, which conftitute avery ¢ffential part of the complicated organization that gives character to individual voices, are the chief implement employed in forming the cle- ‘mentary founds of.n, ng, &c. while the teeth, and fome other parts of the mouth, principally employed in the form- “ation of the eharzéteriltic elements, have, aifo, a material operation in modifying the tone ofthe voice, The praGical aitinttion is however, fufficiently evinced, by the feparate manifeftation of their effe€ts: the tones and inflexions of voice being exhibited in the mol exquifite perfeétion by
feveral {pecies of finging birds, who are deftitute of the ore ganization requifite for {peech, and {peech itfelf being capa- ble of proceeding, in the human fubj:&, in forcible whif- pere, that is tofay, by the action of the enanciative organs on a mere ftream of breath, without accompan'ment of any tone, or found of voice. Of this, however, more hereafter. See Vorce, Enuncratrion, Orcans of Speecu, &c. From the ftru€ture of the organs, the phyfiological en- quirer is next condu€ted to a confideration of the laws of phyfical neceffity, under which the fur€tions of thefe re- {pc€tive organs are performed ; and the mode of operation by which volition accommodates itfelf to the reftri€tions inevitably impefed : an inveftigation which involves feveral topics of confiderable curiofity. From the fimple principle of pendulation (the primary and indifpenfible law of all re- iterated a€tion) are explained many of the effential pheno- mena of enunciative and vocal expreffion, as the trill of the R ; the impraticability of reiterating identical elements, or pronouncing, in immediate fucceffion, certain elements clofely
‘approximating in organic formation, without intervening
paufes; the facilities of certain combinations of element, the difficulty of others, and, confequently, the phyfical caufes of euphony and cacophony; (fee Evpuony, &c.) and, above all, the natureand caufes of thofe radical differences in the qualities of fucceffive fyllables fo well undertocd (in pradtice, and effence at leaft, if not in caufe,) by the gram- marians of Greece, and defignated by them under the terms thefis and arfis, but the total inapprehenfion of which has been the caufe of fo much confufion in the theories and em- barraffment in the praGtical inftru€tions of modern profeffors. The leading dogmas of this fyftem are fo felf-evident, their application to organic as well as mechanic motion, and to the ations of the organs of fpeech in particular, fo demon- {trable, and the coincidence of thefe ations with the phe- nomena of a certain alternate energy and remiffion in the procefs of verbal utterance fo apparent, that itis only afto- nifhing how the principle itfelf fhould have remained fo long obfcured. But there is ftill room enough in the world of {cientific difcovery for other Columbufés to crack the heavy end of othereggs. But our bufinefsis an abftraét, not a dec'amation. ‘Thus then, it is contended, that 2étion is of two kinds, continuous, or proceeding for a certain {pace of time, in a certain direétion, from one original im--
“pulfe, asthe flight of a dart by the impulfe of ‘the bow,
or of a ball from the explofion of a cannon, &t.; or reiterated and capable of unlimited continuity, from fucceflive impulfe, as in the pendulum of a clock, the motion of the legs in walking, &c. But fpeech is not a con- tinuous aétion proceeding for a certain {pace ina certain di- re€tion from one original impulfe, ike the flight of a dart, &c, but a feries of reiterated a€tionslike thofe of the pen- dulum, or of walking, &¢. though much more complicated and diverfified by variety of phenomena, and, for that end, by neceffary modification of impulfe. Still, however, {peech» is ation, reiterated action, refulting from reiterated impulfe, and confequently fubje€ét to the indifpenfible law of reitera- - tion, namely, re-action, oralternation; for asthe pendulum when it has mace its full {wing in one direGtion mult re-a& in the oppolite direGtion, before the primary aétion can. be re- peated ; and as when one of the lower extremities has been advanced at full ftride before the body it mutt either be drawn back again towards its former pofition, or, by a more com- plicated pendulation, the body mult advance upon the limb, . and thus reflore the original poifeto give the other extre- mity an opportunity of fimilar a€tion, before the leg firft advanced can advance again; fo when the tongue, lip, or: uvula have acted in any given direGtion for the formanon of « B2. any
ELOCUTION.
any given element, it muft re-aét filently or expreffively cither
-upon the primary, or in fome new direétion, before the fame element can be repeated, or any other element, requiring a fimilar line of a€tion can be formed. And fo, alfo, when the primary organ of cadential or fyllabic impulfe (the car- tilage that furrounds the larynx) has been once contracted for the impulfion of the more energetic note, are-adtion of that organ, cither filent or accompanied by another note of lefs energy, muft take place before the contractile energy ean be renewed. Hence are derivable all the phenomena that belong to, or are to be defcribed under the denomina- tions of cadence, meafure, rythmus, metrical feet, and other diftinGtions arifing out of thofe radical and effestial differ- ences in the qualities of fyllables, fometimes defcribed by the terms accented and unaccented, and fometimes by the very fame writers, in the very fame page, denied the diftinGtion of accentuation; and fometimes, alfo, confounded with the quantities, and by the denominations, of Jong and /hort, but with which moft certainly, neither accent nor quantity have any thing whatever to do. (See Accent, Measure, Rytumus, Prosopy, Metricar Feet, Quantity, &c. See, alfo, Poise, Tsesis, and Arsis, Pursarion, and Remission, &c.) Hence, alfo, will be found derivable {not from caprice, or tafte, or arbitrary invention, but from phyfical principles) the diitribution of all vocal melodies (and thence by imitation of all other melodies) into the propor- tions and cadences of common and of triple time; (fee Time,) and hence fome light perhaps may be thrown upon that curious and hitherto unfathomable queftion, the caufe of the exclufive fatisfaQtion received by the human ear from founds that follow each other in thofe definite and fimple propor- tions.
Having laid thefe foundations of theory on the folid bzfis of experiment, the elocutionary phyfiologiit may proceed to pra€tice, and the crown and pinnacle of his labours confit in the expofition of the nature and caufes of the various impe- dimencs and imperfe€tions of fpeech ; and in the application of the proper remedics applicable to thofe defr&s, whether eriginating in organic deficizncies, or malconformations; or adopted from imitation, confirmed by the inveteracy of erro- neous habit. (See Impepiment.) The praétical part of elocution alfo neceflarily includes all that relates to the edu- cation and management of the organs of fpeech; the im- provement of the expreflive powers of voice and enun- ciation; the Jaws of infle&ion, proportion and harmony; and the graces and accomplifhments with which the deli- very of {peech (whether original or imitative) fhould natu- rally be accompanied; and by which its effe&s upon the heart, the judgment and the imagination may be heightened and confirmed. See PuystocnomicaL Expression, GEs- TICULATION, &c.
Such is the general outline of the f{cience of elocution, according to the only profeffor of modern times, by whom the fubjeé& has ever been treated in a {cientific point of view, and from the notes of whole public leGtures this abf&ra& is prin- cipally furnifhed ; a fcience which, however negleGted, de- ferves {for its praGtical application at once to the nobleft pur- pofes of public exertion, and the moft familiar gratifications of private life,) a confiderable portion of the attention of thofe who are entrulted with the education of youth. For if oratorical excellence be an object oftly to the few, yet that thofe few fhould have the means of cultivating thofe parts of fuch excellence which appear to be within reach of fyftematic tuition, is certainly highly defirable ; and (not to dwell upon the confideration that it is not always praCticable to forefee, during the feafon of* early tuition, who fhall, or who hall aot, be among the number of that few to whom fuch accom-
lithment might be of primary importance) “ fome deg. aM leatt, of yoeeg val accomplifhment 2 certainly defir- able byall. There are few, indeed, to whom it would not be advantageous (at leaft in point of mental gratification) to be able to read, with emphafis and harmony, the fine paf- fazes of our poets, or the inilru¢tive and eiegant compo- fitions of our hiftorians, moralift:, and amufive writers :— There is, perhaps, fcarcely any individual who has not, occafionally, experienced the advantage of delivering what he had to fay with correGinefs, eafe, and impreffivenefs; or (lacking this accomplifhment) who has not feit the dif- advantages refulting fro.n fuch defe&, Even in the focial intercourfes of private life, how greatvare the benefits of this attainment! How does it multply the fources of innocent pleafure! Whata zeit does ‘t impart to the higheft, though mot familiar, of our intelleGual gratifications!?
“ Fortunately for mankind,’”? continues Mr. Thelwall, “‘ this accomplifiment, fo uaiverfally, to be defired, needs never to be deficed in vain. With thofe exceptions only, which refult from deafnefs, or from mental imbecility, I fhall, I think, demen‘trate, that (by no greater facrifice of time and effort than is ufually devoted to lefs important {ciences and much more frivolons accomplifiments) correét and impreffive elocution is attainable by ali.”” He admits, however, “that hitherto, at leaft, the inflances of fuch at- tainment have been exceedingly rare; that few are the Englifhmen who converfe with fluency and impreffive grace; and fewer {till who can read with tolerable harmony and propriety, Even in our churches, the fublimeft paflages lofe their impreffivenefs from the imperfect manner in which they are delivered; and thofe very preachers who are molt accomplifhed in every other particular, too frequently ob- fcure, by the wretchednefs of their elocution, the eloquent difcourfes they compofe.
« But the caufes of this it is not difficult to difcover. We trace them, at once, in the almolt univerfal negle& of this important branch of education. Even of the profeffed teachers, in this department, where is the individual who has properly explored the extent, or the principles of the {cience, or who has even fufpe&ted that fcience had any thing todo with the fubje@? It has almoft been queftioned whether elocution were even an art? Excellence has been regarded as the mere myltcrious gift of nature or of fortune —as the original and unfolicited difpenfation of a partial providence; which no education could fecure, and which itudy and application were fcarcely neceflary to improve. With refpe& to the conflituents of that excellence, mere tafte and prefentiment have been regarded as the only ar- - biters ; the very laws of infleGlion and poportion have been denied all foundation and exiltence ia the utterance of mo- dern fpeech; and pronunciation, tone, and melody, and even the conitituent requifite of percuflive accent, (upon which the individuality, the character and the force of fpoken words eflentially depend,) have been abandoned to the law- lefs rule of fafhion and ecaprice.” Introdu€&ory Difcourfe on the Nature and Objeéts of Elocutionary Science.
Elocution has by many been confidered as contradiftin- guifhable into three feveral kinds, reading, recitation, and {pontaneous fpeech ; and fome profeffors have marked thefe diltinGtions fo abfolutely, as to prefcribe different ftyles of utterance, both ia vocal and enunciative exprefiion, to the reader and the rec'ter, from thofe which they regard as be- longing to the unpremeditative fpeaker. Mr. Cockin, in particular, in an ingenious differtation (publifhed without his name, 1775) on ** The crt of Delivering written Lan- ‘guage,’’ has maintained this hypothelis; and has difcuffed the fubje&t of thefe fuppofed differences under she refpc&-
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ELOCUTION.
ive heads of accent, cmphahs, modulation, expreffion, (of voice as well as gelture,) and paufes; for the latter four of which, fee hereafter under their refpedive titler. This work, we are informed in the dedication, was altogether ap-~ proved by Mr. Garrick, who affured the author “ that the dosirine laid down in that effay agreed exa&ly with his awa fentiments.”?” The popular axiom, however, “ read exactly as you would fpeak,’”’ ({uppofing it addreffed to a good Yoeaker,) feems, in its principle, to be a rule much more ra- tional than any thing that even the ingenuity of Mr. Ciekin, though applauded by Mr. Garrick, has been able to adduce. It is objeCtionable, indeed, on account of ‘its impratticability ; porting out a degree of perfection that was never yet attained, nor ever will be, tll perfection in other arts and accomph{hments {hall be attained alfo. Bur the principle is not, therefore, the lefs valuable; the models of perfection muft not be difcarded from our minds, becaufe art could never yet completely realize them: and although there are impediments, perhaps infurmountable, in the way of giving either to reading or recitation all the eafe, the grace, and the vitality of {pontancous fpeech, yet, in principle, they fhouid affuredly be the fame; for reading and recitation are only two different modes of imitating that nature, which fpontaneous {peaking exhibits in her original reality; and the imitation ought to be fo much the more perfe& and exaét, as, in this inftance, the artift has the exclufive advantage of operating not only on the model, but with the very materials which nature herfelf employs in her creations. Mr. C., however, contends, ‘* that reading does not receive any of its beauties from the principles of imitation, being no copy, but only another kind of {peech.” That, generally fpeaking, it 1s fo, cannot be denied: but it is fo far from unqueftionable that it ought to be fo, that this may be perhaps affigned as the genuine reafon why the reading even of thofe very perfons produces only fleep, whofe un- premeditated /peaking, is the delight of all ears; and why le&tures never intereit the auditors, like fpontarneous ha- rangues. le There are, however, certain particulars of effential diftinc- tion in the pra@tical facilities; and even capabilities of excel- lence, in readinz, recitation, and original fpeech, which the ftudent of elocution ought to underftand, as thereby each may perhaps be brought fomewhat nearer to perfeCtion than can be expected without the due confideration of thefe circumftances. Thus, for example, fpontaneous fpzech, {pringing immedi- ately from the infpiration of feeling, with all the frefhnefs and glow of original conception, is capable of a degree of warmth, eafe, and flowing energy, which can belong only to firft impreflions and unpremeditated language. From this very circumftance, however, it is incapable of all the fmooth- nefs, proportion, and harmony, which a minute attention to euphony, conftru€tion, rythmus, and quantity, may enable the reader and reciter to accompiith. The reader, on the contrary, who finds the language ready polifhed to his hands, and fees it fpread out before him, has leifure for full atten- tion to all the minutia of rythmical cadence ; and if his ear ‘be good, his perceptions acute, and his notions of the prin- ciples of clocutionary harmony corre&y he may certainly attain a degree of perfeétion of utterance, in what relates to mere proportion and melody, which none but the reader muft expeét. But then, onthe other hand, the reader (efpecialiy he who reads at fight; and if he bas previoufly ftudied, he becomes, in a certain degree, a recifer,) pro- nounces what he reads, not with the feelings of an origi- nator, or imparter, but with the feelings of a recipient ; hia mind is paflive while his organs only are aétive: hence, in- evitably, a certain degree of coldnefs and uanatural reftraint.
The reciter partakes of the advantages and difadvantages of both; and he has both advantages and difadvantages pecu- liar to himfclf. If what he fhould repeat be completely in his memory, he makes it, to a certain degree, his own, and may approximate to the eafe of the fpontaneous [peaker, and the fmooth melody of the accomplifhed reader, though he can never completely attain the unfophifticated warmth and vitality of the former, or the complete rythmus and nicely meafured paufes of the latter. At the fame time, by re- peated experiment, he may have adjufted his tones and atti- tudes, and the expreffions of his countenance, more com- pletely to the fentiment and pafiion of the paflages he is to deliver than the reader could poflitly have done, and have accommodated them more completely to the rules and principles of grace, than is praéticable to the fponta- neous {peaker: but what he gamns in force and propriety he is in danger of lufing in fimplicity ; and the mere reciter, however excellent, is more likely to extort applaufe than to awaken the genuine fympathies of the foul, From this view of the fubje&t, the leGturer already cited concludes, that though the principles of Englifh elocution, fundamentally eonfidered, are the fame, to which foever of thefe three modes of utterance they may be applied, yet the practical excellencies and obvious difficulties of each being peculiar, the ftudent of elocution, whatever department behis ultimate obje&, fhould praGtife in all three, fince reader, reciter, and fpontanecus f{peaker, have zach fomething te learn, from the other two, for the full accomplifhment of his own par- ticular branch of the art.
Another and more rational divifion of the art of elocution may be made from a confideration of the fubjeéts to which it is applied, or the circumitances under which iz is exercifed. According to this principle, elocution may be confidered as diftinguifhable into the following kinds, 1. The converfationals 2. The narrative; 3. Vhe didaétic; 4. The authoritative or judicial; 5. The argumentative; 6.‘The perfuafive; 7.'The declamatory and impaflioned; relative to each of which fome general rules may be laid down both with refpe& to voice and enunciation: asthatin the firft, the enunciation fhould be eafy and familiar. the tone fimple, the infleGion limited, and the pitch of the voice but jult fo far beyond a whifper as to render ic tuneable. In the fecond, the enun- ciation, thoygh exceedingly fimple, fhould be fomewhat more precife and emphatic; the tone clear, unoftentatious, and impreffive ; level, but not monotonous. In the third, both tone an@ enunciation fhould be ftrong, firm, and em- phatic; which in the authoritative and judicial fhould {well to fomething like pomp, mingled with a degree of firmnefs that in effect fhonld border on aufterity, and with re{pect to modulation, almoft on monotony, In the argu- mentative, clearne{s of voice and perfpicuity of-enunciation arethe principal objeéts. Inthe perfuafive, the tones fhould be mild, infinuative, and pathetic, the promunciation remote alike from the affectation of fonoroufnefaand of precifion, In this, indeed, as in the feventh and laft defeription of elocu- tion, the enunciation fhould rather be fubfervient to the tone, (that isto fay, to the feelings,) than the tone to the enunciation, as the objeé of the {pedker is rather to be un- deritood by the heert than by the underflanding, In fub- jets and paffages of flrong paflion and emotion, the enun- ciation fhould be occafionally accelerated and retarded ; ap- parently wild and irregular, but obedient always to the changes of paflion and fentiment; the modulation extenfively varied, and the voice ranging through great varieties of foft. nefs, force, and vehemence, of acutenefy and gravity, and the whole compafs of expreflive or refletive intonation.
The four great {chools of elocution, or rather the four
great
ELOCUTION,
great theatres for the exhibition of that'talent, are, the bar, the pulpit, the fenate, and the ftage; and before we take leave of the fubje&, fomething ought to be faid on each of thefe. We thall confider them, therefore, in their alphabetic order.
Llacution of the Bar—The ftyle of elocution adapted to this profeffion, will beft be underflood by confidering the objects to which the eloquence of the bar is principally to be directed. Thefe are, 1. To demonftrate, by the eluci- dation of evidence, difputed fa&s; 2. To convince, by ar- ganentt the doubtful judgment; 3. To influence by per- uafion, or controul by declamation, the p2ffions, the fym- pathies and moral feelings of thofe upon whom the decifion of acaufe may depend, For the firfl of thefe, we require an elocution diftinguifhed by impreflive diftin@nefs, an unaffeéted deliberation, and colleéted coolnefs; an enunciation precile without formality, at once terfe and familiar; a deportment candid, firm, and unafluming. Tor the fecond, we demand an emphatic perfpicuity; an air of decifive, but modeft con- fidence; an ardour not impetuous, but chaftened and re- ftrained, by all the decorums of circumftance and fituation. For the laft, the nobleft, and moft arduous of all the exer- tions of forenfic eloquence, are required, a range of elocus tionary expreffion, as various as the paflions and emotions to be commanded ; an infinuating mildnefs, a melting or a kindling pathos; the tone, the look, the whole manner, gefticulation and deportment, fhould occafionally affume the entire range of expreflive variety, from the moft conciliating fympathy to the deepeft folemnity, and even, perhaps, on fome occafions to intimidating boldnefs. The occafions, in- deed, on which all that is here demanded can with propriety be exerted by the forenfic orator, may but rarely occur ; but when they do occur, the opportunities are decifive, and the reputation of the pleader, who is fully qualified to avail himfelf of them, is ftamped for ever.
Elocution of the Pulpit.—The objets of clerical eloquence have been oratorically thus enumerated, “to inform the underftanding even of the inapprchenfive; to aroufe the {lumbering confcience; to regulate the moral feelings; to reftore the fcial fympathies, which the difparities of fortune have but too much tendency to fufpend ; to reftrain the fury of ambition, and check the mad carcer of voluptuous pro: digality ; to unlock the iron grafp of avarice, and expand the liberal palm to deeds of charity ; to humble the towering infolence of pride, and difarm the uplifted hand of oppreffion and revenge ;. to infufe the fpirit of benevolence into the heart of unfeeling obduracy; te breathe the facred love of peace into the bofoms of the turbulent, and the mild fpirit of forbearance and toleration into the foul of perfecuting bigotry and prejudice.’” How far all thefe obje&s are, praéti- eally, in the contemplation of every orator of the pulpit, this is no place to difcufs ; but if fuch be, in reality, among the proper objeGs of pulpit eloguence, it is obvious that~all, and more than all, that we have demanded for the elocution of the bar,.is requifite in this {pecies of elocution alfo. Among the ind:{pentible requifites of fuch elocution, are a familiar fimplicity, infinuative and endearing ; an impreffive’ energy, ftimulative and aroufing ; a pathos varied, chara@terittic, and defcriptive ; anda fublimity awful, elevating, and command- ing. A mingled folemnity and enthufialm fhould ecca- fionally give an air of infpifation to the preacher, and his pronunciation, and all the particulars of utterance properly included in the term enunciation, fhould be full, fonorous, and oratorical, rather than loofe and colloquial. At the fame time, nothing is more to-be avoided than any overmarked peculiarity or affeétation, or than the vulgar vehemence, the bawling aod vociferation, which are fometimes miftaken for snergy and oratorical animation...
The modes of elocution in this profeffion, are thofe of reading, as applied to portions of the fcriptures, or to fet forms of worthip; of fermon, which may be either read, (according to the general cuftom of the church of England,) recited, (a3 is ufual among the preachers of the church of Scotland,) or delivered fpontaneoufly, (that is to fay, from notes or refieétions previoufly digefted, without a€tual com- pofition,) as bas been recommended by bifhop Burnet, and ag is practifed by fome ef our feparatifts, and even by a very {mall number of our regular clergy; and of prayer. OF the firft of thefe, it is only neceffary to fay, that the only circumftance in which it fhould differ from any other fpecies. of reading, feems to be, that it fhouid be rather more folemn, and deliberate, from refpeét to the place and the occafion to which it is accommodated. In all kinds of reading, the ftyle of elocution fhould accord with the fubje€, the tone and manner fhould harmonize with the language and fentiment 5 and as the fubjeis of {criptural and devotional reading are fo exceedingly diverfified, it follows as a confequence, that the ftyle of the reader fhould be diverfified as widely ; and that nothing can be more inconfiftent with the objeéts of clerical elocution than monotony. Withrefpeétto the three modes of delivering a fermon, this is not the place for difcuffing their refpeGtive claims of preference; and what has been already faid of the application of the fame. common prin, ciples to reading, recitation, and fpontancous fpeech, and the different kinds of exccllence moft attainable in each, precludes the neceflity of particular rules for them refpect- tvely. In prayer, a folemn proitration of manner, with a confiderable mixture of enthufiafm, feems particularly required ; and an efpecial avoidance of all thofe odd tricks and peculiarities, into which minifters are fo apt to fall, But the further confideration of this fubjeé&t belongs, pros perly, to the title Gesture.
Elocution of the Senate—As the eloquence of the fenate is partly deliberative, partly controverfial, and partly declae matory, it requires an clocution uniting almoft all the prin- cipal requifites enumerated under the two preceding heads - and it admits, and even occafionally:demands, a more impe- tuous warmth, a more rapid and vehement emotion, than in either. of the former inftances could be at all decorous. The fermons of Maffiilon might require, or, at leaft, their effe& might be heightened by a denunciative feverity, an awful aulterity of manner, that fhould imprefs his audiesce with all. the ideas and feelings of a fupernatural agency ; and undet fuch circumftances the oratory of the pulpit might feem to have been carricd, even above the heights, and beyond the force of fenatorial and popular oratory; but it isin the- fenate alone, and the popular affemblies of the nation, that the orator is to hurry away the impetuons paflions, and tranfport the hearer into abfolute ation; and there only are, . of courfe, required the full thunders of clocutionary»energy. But it is not only.in the fervid tones of aa impetuous e+ clamation, that the fenatorial clocutionift fhould excel; inthe. - calm dignity of a, weil modulated cadence, and the polithed grace end propriety of enunciation, he fhouldalfo furpals; and - in the eafy urbanity of tone and eaphony (when the ftronget exertions of eloquence are not required) he fhould manifeft, at - once, the dignity of the ftateiman, and the elegance and. refinement of the polite {cholar. How little thefe cirenms © ftances, (almoft all of them within the reach of a well direéted education,) are attended to, is but too «generally: known ; and in the humble fiate of modern oratory as judged by its effeGts) the con{cquences may but too»well be difeovereds
Elocution of the Stage.—The critical. obje& of ‘theatrical reprefentation is. imitation. «Its excellence is verifimilitudes Ivisa moving picture, that exhibits founds as aes 4
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an
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jets, anda part of whofe pigments are the tones of the hu- Ynan voice. Ite eloention, therefore, fhould be that of Na- ture—Nature in her higheft perfe&tion. Ideal nature, if you pleafe; fuperior, in perfection, to any thing that in- dividual nature ever exhibited, but in principle nothing de- wiating from unfophilicated reality. The harmony may be more perfekt, the intonation fomething more diverfified, the infleSion and range of the voice rather more extenfive, the utterance a little more emphatic, and fome other graces and obfervances may be carried a degree further than ever was obfervable (or perhaps pradlicable) in fpontaneous {peech and real life; but fill that fpontaneity and reality mutt be the models ; and the elocution, inall effential particulars, that would be unfit for the bar, the pulpit, or the popular affem- bly (fo far as the difference does not arife ont of the differ- ent fentiments to be exprefled and paffions to be indulged or excited) is unfit for the age alfo. It fhould be remem- bered, however, that the drama deals in the extremes of paf- fien and emotion; that its moral requires that it‘fhould ex- hibit thofe paffions burfting all bonds of decorum, and tri- omphing over the reftraints of reafon. ‘The player has fre- quently to exhibit the judgmeut under the domination of peffions; and is even to reprefent the full malignity of the worft, as well as the imprudent exceffes of the beft paffions ofournature; while the paffions of the orator are always, in reality, (though not always in appe@rance,) to be under the <ontroul of his judgment ; and all the malignant and evil paf- fions are to be fuppreffed, or kept out of fight, any other- wife than as they may be mentioned, or alluded to, in moral reprehenfion. Hence even the fimplicity and truth of prin- ciple may, and muft produce, occafionally, much: apparent difference of effeG& ; and the fame exercife of judgment (for the judgment of the player mutt, in reality, ftill be paramount ever his paffion, though he be exhibiting the very reverfc) that leads the orator, to temper and qualify, may induce the aétor, to exaggerate the peffion. It isin thefe exaggerations, however, that the art and maftery of the performer are moft feverely tried, andtafte and judgment are alike imperioufly re- quifite. They are neceflary undoubtedly to the perfeétion of his art ; yet the inftant the exaggeration is apparent, dif- gutt begins ;—the inflant the vulgar feeling of wonder is ex- cited, the tragedian finks to a level with the rope dancer ; and many atime ought he to be overwhelmed with corfufion, by thofe very plaudits to the attainment of which- he has fa- ¢rificed all the finer touches of nature that might have fe- cured the genuine applaufe of fympathy andemotion. But fully to attain, or even diftinftly to comprehend, the higher excellencies of theatrical elocution, requires a very diflerent courfe of preparation and ftudy from what generally falls to the defliny, or enters into the apprehenfions of the profef- fors of this art. It is not in the fcience of the green room, the library of the prompter, and the technical know- ledge of ftage trick, to make a fimfhed aétor. To deliver language well, it is neceffary fully to comprehend it, not loofely and colloquially merely, but grammatically, etymolo- gically, and fympathetically ; to dete& the niceft fhades of allufion and difcrimination, and enter into the fentiment of the author ; to realize the paffion, where paflion is, and the chara&ter, where the compofition is charaéteriftic. ‘To excel in any {pecies of elocution, therefore, demands fome know- ledge of general literature ; to be a mafter of that elocution that fhould illuftrate the fine paflages of Shakefpeare, will re- quire a knowledge of our language which, fully poffeffed, would entitle the elocutionift to the rare and valuable chara€ter of an Lnglifh feholar. But the fources of human paffion muft be fludied alfo ; human nature mutt be known, in the gene- ral, and in the particular, in all ranks and conditions, and
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under all circuniltances and affociations, The ‘perceptions wut be diligently cultivated; the difcr'minative powers mut be wellexercifed; feeling, keen, vigorous, varied feeling, muft be cherifhed; and the imagination muft be perpetually at work. For the developement of the ‘flexible powers of the voice, no pains well directed can be too elaborate, and the mind fhould comprehend, and the ear fhould perceive the delicacies and varieties of rythmus, with all the fubtile nicety of a poet.» The a€tor fo qualified will difcard from his elo cution all the pedantries alike of the convent and of the green room ; all profeffional affeétions. and prefcriptive peculiari- ties; he will copy nature in fuch a ftyle, that nature in her turn will copy him ; and like the great a€tors of Greece and Rome, he wi!l be worthy to give, while he receives, inflruc- tions to another Cicero or Demofthenes.
ELODES, in Botany, Adanfon 444. (Elodea; Juff. 255.) A genus formed by Adanfon of the Hypericum /igyptiacum of Linneus, on account of an oblong icale or appendage to the claw of each petal, confidered by Linnzsusas a fore of ne&tary, to which opinion he was probably led by the analogy of the ne@arifcrous glands in his own Hypericum Elodes. We fee no reafon to feparate the above plant from Hypericum, nor does Jufficu more than hint at the meafure. See Hypericum.
Exopes is a!fo ufed among the ancient writers in A/edt- cine, for a fpecies of fever, attended with profufe fweats.
ELOGIUM, Exoee, apraife, or panegyric, beftowed on any perfon or thing, in confideration of its merit.
The word is Latin, but formed of the Greek evaoyia, com= mendalion; which is compounded of ev, well, and deyu, f# Say, or fpeak. x
The fecretary of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris formerly compofed the cloges of fuch members as-died; and delivered them at the next public meeting of the company. Funeral orations are eloges of eminent perfons deceafed.
Extravagant and improbable eloges are of the greatell dis-fervice to their own defign; and do, in effect, diminifh the perfon whom they pretend to magnify, and degrade him whom they profefs to exalt. Any worthy man may pals through the world, unqueftioned and fafe, with a moderate recommendation: but when he is fet off and bedauted with rhetoric,and embroidered fo thick, thatyoucannct difcern the ground, it awakens naturally (and not altogether unjuftly) intereft, curicfity, and envy; forall men ‘pretend a fhare in reputation, and love not to fee it engroffed, or monopolized ; and are therefore apt to enquire (as of great eflates fuddenly got) whether the perfon fo commended, came honeltly by it, and of what credit the perfon is that tells the flory.
ELOHA, in Scripture, the dingulay of Elohi, one of the names of God. See Evoun.
ELOHI, Exo1, or Erouim, one of the names of God: But it is to be obferved, that angels, princes, great men, judges, and even falfe gods, are fometimes called by thig name. The conneétion of the difcourfe effils us in judging’ rightly concerning the true meaning of this word. It te the fame as Eloha; one is the fingular, the other the plu- ral. Neverthelefs, Elohim is often conftrued in the fin- gular number, particularly when the true God is f{poken of; but when falfe gods are fpoken of, it is con{trued rather in the plural. Calmet, Diétion. Bibl. See Jenovan.
ELOI. See Exon.
ELOIGNED, in Law. See Evoneara and Exvoye GATUS.
ELOINE, fignifies to remove, or fend a great way off. Thus it is faid, if fuch as be within age be eloined, fo that they cannot come to fue perfonally, their next-friends fhall’ be admitted to fue forthem, Star, 13 Ed. 1, cap. 15.
ELOME,
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ELOME, a name given by fome authors to orpiment.
ELON, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in the tnbe of Dan. Jofh. xix. 43.
ELONGATA, in Law, i3 a return of the fheriff, that cattle are not to be found, or removed, fo that he cannot make deliverance in replevin. 2 Lil. Abr. 454. 458.
ELONGATION, in <Afronomy, The angle under which we fee the diftance of a planet from the fun, reduced to the ecliptic. P
Let S T (Plate XII. Affronomy, fig. 104.) be the diflance of the fun from the earth, S Ly the curtate diltance of the planet from the fun, the angle T'S L equal to the difference of lengitude of the planet P and earth 'T feen from the fur, called the commutation; the refolution of the triangle TS L, in which the two fides and contained angle are given, will give the angle at the earth S T L, ca'led the elongation, and this being taken from the longitude of the fun, if the planet is to the ealt, or sight of the fun, will give the geo- centric longitude of the planer.
The triangle SLT may be refolved by the following rule: the leaft fide is tothe greateit as radius is to the tan- gent of an angle, from which 45° mult be taken, The tangent of the remaindcr, multiplied by the tangent of half the fum of the unknown angles, gives the tangent of half their diference, which muft be added to or fubtracted fromthe half fum to trace the angle of elongation, This angle is the leaft of the unknown angles in the cafe of an inferior planet when the half difference muit be fubtraéted; it is the greatelt for a fuperior planet when it mult be added.
{t is fometimes ufeful to recolle& the following pro- portions. | -
The fine of the commutation is to the fine of the elonga- tion as the tangent of the heliocentric latitude is to the tan- gent of the geocentric latitude.
The fine of the elongation is to the fine of the commuta- tion as the curtate diftance of the planet from the fun is to the curtate diftance of the planet from the earth.
It is at the time of the greateft clongations of the inferior planets Mercury and Venus, that they are ufually feen to the greatelt advantage. The greateft elongation of Venus was, according to Ptolemy, from 45° 25" to 47° 35', and that of Mercury between 16° 8! and 28° 37/.. According to our modern tables thefe numbers are, for Venus 44° 57! to 7° 48’, and for Mercury 17° 36! to 28° 20!.
Exroncarion isalfo ufed, by fome authors, for the dif- ference in motion, between the fwifteft and the floweft of two planets ; or the quantity of fpace, whereby the one has overgone the other; called alfo /uperation.
The fwifteft motion of the moon, with regard tothe fun, is called the elongation of the moon from the fun. Wealfo fay diurnal elongation, horary elongation, &c.
EtonGation, as it relates to Fortification, is a term ufed to exprefs that deviation from the immediately regular conftru&tion, which is derived from a polygon formed upona eircle, to one formed upon an ellipfis, or oval: when this hap- pens, only two of the faces retain that conltruétion and pro- portion which would appertain to the relpedtive circles of which they would each form a part. In this we confider the ellipfis in quettion to be drawn upon two circles, and having a line paffing through both their centres, as well as through the centres of the two retained faces; which neceflarily are parallel. The two fides, or elongated arcs of the ellipfis, may be divided into any number of faces, according to the extent of the area inclofed; they are ufually on the fale of the greater fyftem, while the ends are on the fcale of the mean fyftem. Sometimes the elon- gation mult be made fo as to occupy a great extent of
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front; in which cafe it may become expedient to throw forth a crown-work from the centre of the elongated are, or line, in order to prevent the enemy from occupyi any part of the efplanade fufficiently near to batter tho works which may be rather weak for want of a flankin fire {ufficiently powerful to impede the befiegers. Thefe crown-works anfwer much the {ame purpofe as advanced re- doubts in front of a line of entrenchments, and feour the whole advance fo completely, enfilading the affailants, as to render it peremptorily neceffary to become matters of chem before the lines can be carried. ‘This will fhew not es | their ability, but the abfolute yi for conftruéting all fuch advanced defences, in that {cientific manner which may render them untenable by the enemy, after being poffeffed by them, as well as perfeétly incompetent to make any ime preflion on the intrenchments, which would command them in reverfe, that is, in their rear, and compel the enemy to quit. Crown-works being on a’ more important feale, re- quire that every attention fhould be paid that their batteries fhould not bear upon any of the main defences.
The foregoing relates to regular works: for the irregular we have fcarcely any thing like a defined rule; but it mutt always be held in mind, that the more the defences are elongated, the more they will require additional fupport, either from various lines of fortification one within the other, ' or from detached works, fo fituated as to defend the weaker parts. This neceflity arifes chiefly from the faliant angles being rarely allowed to fall within go°, left they fhould plonge upon fome other parts of the defences; whereas in all works formed upon a pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, or even an oMagon, the angles of the baltions may be conliderably reduced, and the ravelines equally fo ; it is owing to this that fortrefles, on a large f{cale, not only admit, but require, numerous additional defences to fill up the feveral intervals between the exterior faliant amgles, or extremes of the defences, but to prevent the enemy from occupying pofitions favourable to their views.
We do not term works conftruéted in an irregular manner along the fhores of a bay, or around a peninfula, elongated ; they may be carried for miles without coming under that defignation ; it is only when a line of defence, aly particu- larly fortifications, forming a figure either perfe@ly regular, or nearly fo, are in every particular part extended, for the purpofe of embracing more fpace, or coaforming to any particular local circumftance, that we confider the term elongation to be applicable,
In Tadics, the term implies fuch an extenfion of the front as is produced artificially, without the aid of reinforcements. Thus, we draw up troops only two, inftead of three, deep, for the purpofe of elongating our front ;_ which confequently. thus becomes extended to half as much more as it formerly occupied in length. This is often neceffary, but it certainly weakens the fire and the refiftance throughout; befides, it prevents the cafualties in the front from being fo readily filled up, and is apt to leave gaps, or openings, through which the enemy’s cavalry may make a charge.
Where it is abfolutely neceflary to retain a very firm front, yet to extend it fo far as local means may allow,, efpecially where it is principally intended to repel the, enemy’s horfe, thofe parts of the line which may be moft. expofed by the evennefs of the ground, &c. ought to be blocked by abdatis, that is, timber felled and laid in fuch a manner as fhould obftrué& the paflage of cavalry ; behind, thefe a few men fhould be difperfed to prick off any of the, affailants who fhould attempt to cut an opening, or to drag away the trees, fo as to obtain admiffion. Frequently trees can be cut down, but cannot be drawn away to any
5 chofea
eS ee a
ond ee
Ss ee Tf
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chofen fpot: in fuch cafe, their trunks and principal branches may be left, while their lefler boughs may be cut into {takes and palifades for the defence of other parts. The line will of courfe be elongated by fuch devices, while the more expofed parts may retain their effective ftrength. Where a convoy is in quefion, and that the attack upon it can be made only upon one long front, which cannot be entirely covered by the waggons, &e. then, placing the artillery in the moft commanding fituations, the infantry rout be ranged in fuch manner as may elongate the defences, and keep the enemy in check, This will be peculiarly ne- ceflary where a neighbouring height mutt be cut off from the enemy’s poffeflion, though it could not be occupied by the defenders of the convoy without weakening and dividing them.
_ The elongation of an attack, is where only a {mall front is fhewo at firft, but is gradually extended fo as to embrace a greater portion of the defences: thus, when after opening a battery upon a battion only, other batteries are made to bear upon the curtain almoft paraliel thereto ; in fuch cafe, we fuppofe only a bridge-head, or a leche to exift, but no raveline. Likewife, when a column of infantry bearing down upon, and menacing only one particular point, fud- denly deploys, and aé&ts upon a greater extent of line, the attack is faid to be e/ongated. But, ineither cafe, the term does not apply to any additional force brought to a&t on the fame point; it relates to extenfion merely. g
Exvoncarion, in Surgery, is an imperfe@ luxation; when the ligament of any joint is fo extended, or relaxed, as to lengthen the limb, but yet not to let the bone go quite out of its place. See Luxarion,
ELONGATUS, Exorcnep, a return of the fheriff that a perfon is conveyed out of his jurifdiGion. See writ de Homine Reprecianpo.
ELOPEMENT, in Law, is when a married woman, of
her own accord, departs from her hufband, and dwells with
an adulterer; for which, without voluntary reconcilement to the hufband, fhe fhall lofe her dowry ; nor fhall the huf- band, in fuch cafe, be compelled to allow her any alimony. Stat. Weltm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 34. See Divorce and Dower. « Sponte virum mulier fugiens, & adultera facta, Dote fua careat, nifi fponfo {ponte rctracta.”’
The word is formed from the Belgic, Ee, matrimony, and /oopen, to run away. ~ However, mere advertifing a wife in the Gazette, or other public papers, is not a Tegal notice to perfons in gene- ral not to truft her; though a perfonal notice given by the hufband to particular perfonsis faid tobe good. An action lies, and large damages are ufually given, again{t a perfon for carrying away, and detaining another man’s wife. See TForcisre Abdufion and RavisHMeENT.
ELOPS, in Jchthyology, a genus of abdominal fifhes, the chara¢ter of which, according to the Linnzan fyftem, confilts in having the head fmooth ; edges of the jaws and palate rough with teeth; gill-membrane with thirty rays, and armed on the outfide in the middle with five teeth.
The genus elops is defined by Bloch as having the gill- membrane furnifhed with more than thirty rays, ({pecimens he examined exhibiting thirty-four, ) and Bofe admits there fiould not be Jefs than thirty to conftitute the genus, Bloch confiders the bony fhield or plate beneath the chin, and the dorfal fin being placed oppofite the ventral, as effen- tial charaéters of the genus.
* “The only fpecies of this genus at prefent known is the Lishwan’ elops faurus; le Kezard of the French writers. Vou, XU. —
Z,Lr@ Perfiaps the earlieft deferiber of this fith is fir Hans Sloane,
who, in the fecond volume of his hiftory of Jamaica, gives a figure and detailed defeription. He fpeaks of it under the name of faurus maximus, and acquaints us that it is called in Jamaica the fein-fith, or fea gally-wafp. “ This fifth (he obferves) was about fourteen inches long, in the middle five inches round, and tapering to both ends ; the mouth in both jaws had one row of {mall tharp teeth, and on the upper two more within, parallel to them, and a row of the fame on the upper part of the cartilaginous tongue ; three quarters of an inch from the end of the fnout were the eyes, round, and grey; there were two pinne pof? branchias, two under the belly, one on the middle of the back, of? anum another, and a forked tail; it was all over fcaly, the back of a dark brown, and the belly of a white colour.” The fpecies is found.in various parts of the American feas ; it was met with by Dr. Garden about Carolina, and communicated by him to Linnzus. The {trong {pine at each fide of the tail is confidered as a fpecifical diftin€tion of elops faurus by Linneus, Gmelin, and others, but this. muft obvioufly re- main a very doubtful charaéter till another fpecies at leait of the fame genus be difcovered in order to afcertain whether fuch fpines be not charatteriftic of the genus inflead of the {pecies.
It has been obferved by writers that elops faurus bears fome refemblance to a pike, or rather to a falmon; with the former it has no kind of affinity whatever, but on the con- trary it is fo clofely allied to the falmo tribe that were it not from being deftitute of the flefhy raylefs fin, fo uniformly obfervable on the lower part of the back in the falmon kind, we fhould be almoft induced to refer it to that genus.
The head of elops faurus is without f{cales. The lower jaw rather longer than the upper. Both jaws, together with the tongue and palate, are armed with a vaft number of {mall teeth. ‘The eyes nearly vertical; the irides double, the inner one yellow, exterior red, and the pupil black ; and the eyes partly covered with the fkin of the head. The body of this fifh is flender, and the feales large; the head yellowith, back blueifh, fides filvery. The lateral line is ftraight. All the fins brownifh; the exterior half of the
ectoral fin, anterior part of the dorfal fin, and extremity of the tail blueifh. The tail is much furcated, and divided in the middle by a diftiné&t longitudinal ftripe of black.
Exors, Eau}, in Zoology, the name of a ferpent, other- wife called elaps.
ELOQUENCE, the art of {peaking or writing well, fo as to move and perfuade. The term, however, in its greateit latitude, denotes that art or talent, by which the difcourfe is adapted to its end ; *¢ Dicere fecundum virtutem orationis- Scienfia bene dicendi,’’? Quintilian. In common converfa- tion, however, the word eloquence is feldom ufed in fuch a comprehenfive fenfe. But this definition exa¢tly correfponds to Tully’s idea of a perfect orator; ‘¢ Optimus eft orator qui dicendo animos audientium et docet, et deleCtat, et permovet.”? Accordingly all the ends of {peaking are redu- cible to four; every sipcote or {peech being intended to enlighten the underitanding, to pleafe the imagination, to move the paffions, or to influence the will, Whena {peaker addreffes, himfelf to the underftanding his aim is to inform, and to convince, for the former of which purpofes the pre- dominant quality is perfpicuity, and for the attainment of the latter, argument. By the firft we are made to knaw, and by the fecond to believe. The imagination is ad. dreffed, by exhibiting to it a lively and beautiful reprefenta- tion of a fuitable objet. As in this exhibition, the taf of the orator may be faid to refemble that of the painter, which. confifts in imitation, the merit of the performance
refults
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refults entirely from the two following fources, viz. dignity, as well in the fubject, or thing imirated, as in the manner of imitation, and refemblance, in the portrait or performance, This addrefs attains the fummit of perfection in the /udlime, eat fee,) or thofe great and noble images, which, pre- ented to the mind in fuitable colouring, expand, as it were, the imagination with fome vait conception, and quite ravith thefoul. The charaGteriftic of the third [pecies of difcourfe, or that which is addrefled to the paffions, is the pathetic. (See Passions and Paruos.) But the moft complex and moft important of all the kinds of eloquence is that which is calculated to influence the will and to perfuade to a cer- tain courfe of condué&. ‘This is an artful mixture, of that which propofes to convince the juégment, and of that which interefts the paffions ; and its diftinguifhing*excellence refults from thefe two, the argumentative and the pathetic duly blended. Thefe, combining their force and a€ting in con- cert, conftitute that vehemence of addrefs, which is admirably fitted for perfuafion, and has always been regarded as the fupreme qualification in an orator. This animated reafon- ing was by the Greek rhetoricians termed dacin:, and from fignifying the principal excellency in an orator was ufed at length to denote oratory itfelf. Hence, as vehemence and _ eloquence became fynonymous, the latter, in conformity to this mode of thinking, was fometimes defined “ the art of perfuafion.”” In order to perfuade, which, though not the only object of eloquence, is the moft important and for many reafons thé ‘moft difficult, the moft effential requifites are folid argument, clear method, a chara€ter of probity ap- pearing in the fpeaker, joined with fuch graces of ftyle and utterance as fhall command attention to what he fays. Hearers who exercifé their underftanding cannot be per- fuaded, without being convinced ; but conviCtion and per- fuafion, though they are fometimes confounded, ought to be diftinguifhed from each other. Convition affects the underftanding only ; perfuafion, the will and the practice. It is the bufinefs of the philofopher to convince a perfon of the truth ; but it is the bufinefs of the orator to perfuade him to a& agreeably to it, by engaging the affeCtions of the hearer. Conviction and perfuafion ought always to accom- pany each other, but this is not univerfally the cafe ; becaufe the inclinations do not regularly follow the didtates of the underftanding. The inclination may revolt, though the underftanding be fatisfied ; the paffions may prevail againit the judgement. Conviction, however, is one avenue to the inclination, or heart ; and it is that which an orator fhould firft endeavour by his utmoft efforts to gain; for no per- fuafion is likely to be ftable, which is not founded on con- viGion. But in orderto perfuade, the orator muft do more than produce mere conviction; he mutt duly confider the nature of man, and endeavour to a&t upon the different fprings by which he is moved. He mutt addrefs himfelf to the paflions; he muft paint to the fancy, and touch the heart } and hence, befides folid argument and clear method, all the conciliating and interefting arts, both of compofition and pronunciation, enter into the idea of eloquence.
«We may diftinguifh,” fays Dr. Blair, (Leéures, vol. ii.) “three kinds, or degrees, of eloquence. ‘The firft, and loweft, is that which aims only at pleafing the hearer. Such, generally, is the eloquence of panegyrics, inaugural orations, addreffes to great men, and other harangues of this fort. This ornamental fort of com- pofition is not altogether to be rejefted. It may inno- cently amufe and entertain the mind; and it may be mixed, at the fame time, with very ufeful fentiments. But it muft be confefled, that where the fpeaker has no farther aim than merely to fhine and to pleafe, there is great danger
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of art being ftrained into oftentation, and of the compofition becoming tirefome and languid, ,
«* A fecond and a higher degree of eloquence is when the {peaker aims not merely to pleafe, but alfo to inform, to inftru€&, to convince; when his art is exerted in remoyin prejudices againft himfelf and his caufe, in chufing the molt proper arguments, ftating them with the greateft force, arrangiag them in the belt order, exprefling and deliverin them with propriety and beauty, and thereby difpofing us te pafs that judgment, or embrace that fide of the caufe, to which he feeks to bring us. Within this compals, chiefly, is employed the eloquence of the bar. bok
«* But there is athird and flill higher degree of eloquence, wherein a greater power is radial over the human mind ; by which we are not only convinced, but are interefted, agi- tated, and carried along with the fpeaker; our paffions are made to rife together with his; we enter into all his emo- tions, we love, we detelt, we refent, according as he in- fpires us; and are prompted to refolve or to act, with vi- gour and warmth. Debate, in popular affemblies, opens the moft illuftrious field to this {pecies of eloquence ; and the pulpit alfo admits it.’? See farther on the different {pecies of eloquence under the article Exocution. For the hiitory of eloquence, and an account of the moft diftingpithed orators; fee Oxarory and Orator. 'Thofe who diftin- guifh between eloquence and rhetoric reprefent the latter as propofing and explaining the theory, and the former as the practice of the art ; but they are generally ufed indiferimi- nately for each other. See Erocurion and Rueroric. On the fubje& of this article, fee Campbell’s Philofophy of Rhetoric, Blair’s Letures, vol.ii, and Cambray’s Dia- logues on Eloquence.
ELORA, or Exrora, in Geography, a town of Hin- dooftan, in the vicinity of Dowlatabsa, famous for its numerous pagodas, moit of which are cut out of the natural rock. M. Thevenot, who has particularly defcribed them, fays, that for two leagues topethin nothing isto be feen but pagodas, in which are fome thoufands of figures. The fculp- ture of them he does not much commend ; and we may apprehend, fays major Rennell, that they are of early Hin- doe origin. It fhould be recolleGted, that Deoghire, which ftood in this neighbourhood, was the greateft and richeft principality in the Deccan ; and that the fame of its riches incited Alla to attack it in 1293 ; and thefe elaborate mo- numents of fuperftition were probably, as Rennell fuggefts, the offspring of that abundant wealth, under a government purely Hindoo. Sir C.W. Malet has given a particular account of thefe wonderful excavations, illuftrated with drawings, in the fixth volume of the “* Afiatic Refearches.”” As to their origin or date no inquiry which he had been able to make afforded him fatisfaGtion. He has no doubt, how- ever, that they are the works of people, whofe religion and mytholegy were purely Hindoo; and he adds, that moft of the excavations carry itroug marks of dedication to “* Mah- dew,” as the prefiding deity. Neverthelefs he fuggeits, that the moft northerly caves of Ellora, occupied by naked fitting and ftanding figures, are the works of the ** Sewras”” or “ Juttees,’? who by the Brahmens are efteemed fchifma- tics, and whofe fe&, called * Srawuk,” is very numerous in Guzerat. The tenets, obfervances, and habits of the ‘ Sewras”’ are peculiar, and in many points very different from other Hindus. ‘Their adoration of the deity is conveyed through the mediation of « Adnaut”? and * Parifnaut,” the vifible objets of their worfhip, perfonified as a naked man fitting or ftanding. This fect is fuppofed to be of a comparatively modern origin ; and if this be the cafe, and the hypothefis of the dedication of the temples to their idol be
4 admitted,
ELO
admitted, the limit of their poflible antiquity will be affigned ; but without afcertaining, or affeCting, that of the others. As to the antiquity of thefe altonifhing works, this writer has detailed two different accounts; one given by an intelli- gent Mahometan and another by a Hindu. The account of the firft is faid to have been derived from a perfon of acknowledged erudition. The fecond was deduced from a book, entitled ‘ Sewa Lye Mahat,” or the grandeur of the manfion of Sewa, i.e. Mahdew. The Mahometan reported, that ‘ the town of Ellora was built by rajah Eel, whoalfo excavated the temples, and being pleafed with them, formed the fortrefs of Deoghire (Dowlatabad,) which is a curious compound of excavation, fearping, and building, by which the mountains were converted into a fort, refembling, as fome fay, the infulated temple in the area of the ‘ Indur Subba’’ (one of the pagodas.) Eel rajah was contemporary with Shah Momin Araf, who lived goo years ago.”? The Brahmen, on the other hand, faid, “ that the excavations of Ellora are 7894 years old, formed Ly Eeloo rajah, the fon of Pefhpout of Elichpore, when 3000 years of the Dwarpa Youg were unaccomplifhed, which, added to 4894 of the prefent Kal Youg, makes 7894.’? Our author inclines to the former opinion. He farther informs us, that the “ Koond,’’ or ciftern, mentioned by the Brahmens, is fill in excellent prefervation, juft without the town of Ellora; and the holinefs of its water is even now in fuch high eftimation as to render it a “ Teerut’’ (pilgrimage) of great reputation and refort, under the appellation of Sewalla Teeruit,’? or “ Kond.’? There are many other excavations in a femicircular mountain, that commands a view of the fine valley of Ellora. In order to account for thefe extraordinary works, and the fituation in which they were conftrudted, it fhould be confidered, that the ancient Brahmens avoided the contamination of cities, and affeted the purity and fimplicity of rural retirement. In fituations remote from obfervation, the imagination of their difciples probably enhanced the merits of their fan@ity. Accordingly, to alleviate aufterities, and to gratify the devout propen- fities of thefe holy men, became objeéts of pious emulation. Under the influence of this principle, the munificence of princes may have engaged to provide them retreats, which, fantified by the fymbols of their adoration, were at once fuited, in fimplicity and feclufion, to thofe for whom they were intended, and in grandeur to the magnificence of their founders. Thus power and wealth may have been com- bined, under the guidance of enthufiafm, to produce monu- _ments, {carcely lefs extraordinary or lefs permanent, though lefs confpicuous and lefs known, than the pyramids of Egypt. Although fome of thefe excavations are of very zncient origin, there are others, and particularly two, in a hill near a garden in the neighbourhood of Aurungabad, formed, as it is confidently afferted, by rajah Paur Sing, one of the Rajpoot Ameers of Aurungzebe’s court, as-a place of retirement, during his attendance on that monarch in his -excurfions to the neighbouring garden.
_ELOTZ, a town of Ruffia, in the diftri& of Orlof ; 112 miles E.N.E. of Orel. N. lat. 53° 20/. E. long. 39° 14/.
ELOVKA, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Tobolfk; 16 miles W. N. W. of Tomik.
ELOY, Nicuoras Francis Josgrn,: in Biography, was born at Mons, in the province of Hainault, on the _20th of September1714,and died on the 1oth of March 1988, having exercifed his profeffion as a phyfician with great ability and difinterefted humanity. He was aman of ex- tenfive learning, and great modetty, and much addiéed to Atudy ; whence, notwithfta::ding his profeffional avocations, he was.enabled to write upon a variety of topics, and his
E' LIP
publications are numerous, His firft work, which was publithed in 1750, was a {mall treatife, entitled « Reflex. ions fur ’Ufage du The,”? His next publication was an attempt at a hiltory of medicine, arranged in the form of a dictionary, and entitled « Effai du DiGionnaire Hif- torique de la Medicine Ancienne et Moderne,” in two volumes oétavo, which appeared in the year 1755; this work was afterwards greatly enlarged, by extending the different articles which it contained, and was publifhed in 1778, in four=volumes quarto, with the title of “ Dic~ tionnaire Hiftorique de la Medicine Ancienne et Moderne;’’ to which, as our readers will have obferved, we have been much indebted for information relative to the different me« dical charaGters, of whom we have already given a biogra- phical account. Eloy likewife publifhed, it 1755, a fimall volume, entitled Cours Elementaire des Accouchemens;”? and, afew years previous to his death, wiz. in the years 1780 and 1781, he committed to the prefs two other eflays, the firft of which was entitled «« Memoire fur la Marche, Ja Nature, les Caufes, et le Traitement. de la Dyfenterie ;’” and the other, “ Queftion Medico-politique ;. fi ’Ufage du café eft avantageux a la fanté, et s’il peut fe concilier avec le bien de l’état dans les Provinces Belgiques??”? Asa flight reward for the patriotic zeal manifefted in this tra@, the eftates of Hainault prefented him with a fuperb {nuff box, with this infcription, « Ex Dono Patriz ;’’ the Gift of his Country, He held the honourable office of phyfi. Cian to prince Charles of Lorraine. Nouveau Di&. Hittor, &c. Lyon, 1804.
ELPHIN, in Geography, a poft town of the county of Rofcommon, province of Muntter, Ireland, 75 Irith miles W. by N. from Dublin, and 7 miles S, from Carrick, on Shannon.
Evpuin, a bifhopric in Ireland, in the archi-epifcopal province of Tuam. It dates its origin from St. Patrick, in the middle of the sth century. It comprizes the great- er part of the county of Rofcommon,a large {cope in Sligo and Galway, and a very little in Mayo; and is reckoned one of the moft valuable of the Irith bifhoprics. There are 75 parifhes, which are formed into 29 benefices, and of thefe - 26 have churches, which are the only ones in a tract of 420,150 Irifh acres! The cathedral is a poor parifh church, but the bifhop’s palace is a very good modern houfe, in the midft of an excellent demefne, and adjoining the {mall town of Elphin. Beaufort.
ELPHINSTON, Witutam, in Biography, a Scotch prelate and ftatefman, was born at Glafgow about the year 1431. He was educated at the Univerfity of his native place, and became diftinguifhed for his proficiency in the learning of the times. He after- wards went to Paris, where he itudied the civil and canon law, and likewife delivered le€turcs with great reputation for feveral years. Upon his xeturn to Scot- land he was promoted to church livings, and admitted a member of the king’s council. He was, foon after this, appointed a joint commiffioner with the bifhop of Dunkeld and the earl of Buchan, in fettling fome difputes between the courts of Scotland and France. As a reward for the pru- dence and eloquence which Mr, Elphiniton difplayed on this occafion, he was, on his return, nominated to the bifhopric of Rofs ; whence, about the year 1484, he was tranflated to the fee of Aberdeen, and appointed, at the fame time, to the chancellorfhip of the kingdom, an office which he held fome time with the higheft reputation; but when the
troubles which took place between the king, James IIT.,
and his difcontented nobility, had involved the kingdom in a civil war, he abandoned public ftate affairs, and confined Cz himfelf
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himfelf wholly to the duties of his bifopric. But, on the acceffion of James IV. his talents as a ftatefman were again called into exercife, and from this time his fovereign under- took no affairs of moment without his advice and concur- rence, He died in 1514, at the advanced age of eighty- three, leaving behind him an excellent charadter ; he was the patron oF learning and learned men, and it is fuppofed, that by his influence the bull was obtained from the pope, for edtablithing a univerfity at Aberdeen, with as ample privileges as were enjoyed by the moft favoured feats of ‘learning; and to his perfonal exertions and fuperintend- ence, it was chiefly owing that the building of King’s eollege was undertaken and completed. To that founda- tion he proved himfelf a munificent benefactor during the Femainder of his life; and, at his death, when he be- ueathed large fums of money for its fupport. Gen. Biog.
ELPISTICI, Earisixo, among the Greeks, a fect of philofophers, who made hope the ruling paflion of man- kind.
ELRICH, in Geography, atown of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and county of Klettenburg 5 for- merly the capital of the county; in which are fome con- fiderable manufa@tures ; 6 miles N. W. of Nordhaufen.
ELRICK, on Ecenric roan, in Antiquity, was an ancient artificial road, made with great labour and ex- pence through the fens, ten miles from Spalding to Deep- ing, by Egelric, abbot of Crowland, in the county of Lincoln, and afterwards bifhop of Durham; who, as In- gulphus relates in his hiltory of that monaftery, raifed, by means of wood and gravel, a caufeway, or caufey, for travellers, through the centre of a wild foreft and deep marfhes, called, after him, Egelric ; or, by abbreviation, El- ric-road. A part of it is {till vifible, lined with willows, between the river Welland, and the marfhes north of Crow- land. Gough’s Tranflation of Ingulphus’s Hiftory of Crowland. \
ELS, in Geography, atown of Moravia, in the circle of Brann, 32 miles W. of Olmutz, and 24 N.N. W. of Brunn,
ELSA, a river of Tulcdny, which runs into the Arno, about a mile W. from Empoli.
ELSE, ariver of Silefia, which runs into the Oder, near Oderburg.
ELSEN, a {mall town of France, in the department of the Roer, chief place of a canton in the diitri&t of Cologne, with a population of 304 individuals. But the canton con- tains 36 communes, and 12,239 inhabitants.
Exsen, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Weft- nee and bifhopric of Paderborn ; 2 miles W. N. W. of
aderborn.
ELSFLETH, a {mall town of Germany, in the duchy of Oldenburg, fituated on the river Wefer, where the duke of Oldenburg exacts 2 confiderable toll from all veffels fail- ing up the rivertowards Bremen, At the peace of Lune- ville, the duke was offered an indemnity for this toll, with the view to favour the commerce of Bremen; but its pro- duce is fo important, that the duke would not confent to its abolition.
ELSGAY, a bailliage of Switzerland, being part of the
- bifhopric of Baile, lying between the mountains and the Larg, and comprehending the town aad bailiwick of Poren- tru, aud 20 parifhes.
ELSHEIMER, Avan, in Biography, a painter of very extraordinary talents, ftanding quite alone in the pe- culiar province 4 the lift he adopted, viz. {mall pi&tures of Jandfeapes with figures, and of fmall figures with land- feape back-grounds. The figures being in fome the prin-
; ELS
be fe objeét, and occupying the largeft portion of the {peée of the pi€ture; and, in others, the landfcapes being the moft important. He was born at Franckfort ; at what pee riod, thofe who have written his life, differ much in flating ; but the beft authorities determine it to haye been in. 1 74 and his death to have happened in 1620, fo that he ieee only 46 years. ‘
fie was at firft adifciple of Philip Uffenbach, whom he foon excelled, and then determined to go to Rome, where alone he could acquire that high talte to which he af-
ired.
. After fome time {pent in ftudy of the fine works there expofed to his view, and an intimacy with’ many eminent painters, he fixed upon that ftyle at age which has been mentioned as decidedly his own; in which no one had ever before exerted himfelf; and in which no one has ever fince fo highly excelled as Elfheimer. :
That which renders his pi€tures fo interefting is, the gran- deur of ftyle in which they are executed. Many of his figures partake fo much of Raphael’s beit manner of cha- racter, of a&tion, and difpofition of the draperies, that if they were magnified, they would appear to be of that great maiter’s own hand; and they have fuperadded a colour which is of a fuperior clafs; in the production of which, indeed, the fmallnefs of their fize was of confiderable ai- fiftance to him; for it is by no means fo eafly to extend a full body of colour over a large furface, with equally pleaf- ing variety of tone, and freedom of execution; and in it to feparate and form the diftin@t parts as in a fimaller one ; and though it requires more neatnefs in the execution of the latter, it does not demand fo free and fo ready a hand to unite, to blend, and foften the various parts, and to give expreffion its full force, as in the former,
His piétures exhibit great attention to nature ; particu- larly his perfpective is very perfe€t, in lines, at leait ; and he not unfrequently chofe very difficult things to manage: fuch as working with a fhort perfpective diftance, and fometimes placing his figures on the top of a hill, and fud- denly lofing the ground, till it is recovered again in a deep valley. His landfcapes have, in general, the air of real views, and are finifhed with wonderful attention to general form, and beautiful fcenery. Their colour is not always exatly that of nature, but as feen under a peculiar illumi- nation, like the tone which Titian has adopted in his St. Peter Martyr ; giving it an air of grandeur not to be ob- tained, perhaps, by the brighter hues of nature.
From the extreme care and excellence with which his works are finifhed, they were not, of courfe, in his fhort life, very numerous ; and are rarely to be met with. The richeft colleétion of them in this country is at the earl of Egremont’s, at Petworth, in Suffex. There are ten pic- tures by him, eight of which are of ene fize, viz. about four inches high, by two anda half wide, or perhaps a little more. The fubjeéts are, a St. Peter, St. Paul, St. John Baptift, Tobit and the Angel with a Fifh, an old Woman and a Girl, an old Man with a Boy, and a Capuchin Friar, with a model of a convent in his hand. The figures in all thefe are about three inches high, yet their charaGters and expreffions are juit and excellent; and the drawing of their figures, and the draperies, in the beft ftyle of art. An- other picture reprefents the interior of a brothel by fire and candle light, in which there are ten or more figures gam- ing, and indulging in the licentioufnefs of fuch a place, all exquifitely wrought ; with fome expreflions that have never been furpaffed, although the figures are not more than inches and a half high. The -laft is Nicodemus’s vifit to Chritt ; but it is not of fo good a quality as the others. —
: The
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The fubjects he chofe were generally moon light or can. gle light pieces, which he painted with great lightnefs, {pirit, and delicacy of touch, and with great knowledge of. the chiaro-feuro,. and excellent colour; and with fuch finifh, that every part will bear the minutelt:in- {pection,
While he lived his pidures bore high prices, and they -
of courfe were greatly enhanced on his death ; one of them
is mentioned by Houbraken, reprefenting Pomona, as hay- ing fold for 800 German florins, There are engravings from many of Elfheimer’s pictures by his friend and bene- ~factor, count Gaud; but they are in general too heavy and black, and have a flatnefs of effe€t, particularly in the _trees, very unlike the originals ; among them is one from his moft famed picture, the Flight into Egypt, a moon- light. It is now, with two others of different fubjects, in the National Mufeum at Paris,
Elfheimer, though thus endowed with tafte and fill, was
-not the favourite of fortune. Notwithftanding he obtained great prices for what he did, yet his,care in the execution of them, and the time they coft him to finifh, were not fo -recompented as to enable him to live and maintain a large family with comfort. As what he earned by his paintings would not find fuftenance for himfelf and them, he fell ‘into debt, and was cait into, prifon; the difgrace of which, though he was not fuffered to remain long confined, is faid to have preyed on his fpirits, and haftened his diffo- lution. He was greatly regretted, and his works eagerly bought up, even by the Italians. ‘The grand duke of Tul- cany had feveral of them, and the world juftly lamented the fevere fortune of fo extraordinary a genius, who deferved far more felicity than he was permitted to enjoy.
‘Mliheimer is highly celebrated, fays another writer, for
his careful pencil and extraordinary effets of light. Mott of his landfcapes are illumined by fire, or by moon, or torch light ; and in them he has mtroduced {mall hiftorical figures, which are highly appropriate to the fcenes, and molt ex- quifitely pated: yet his Aurora, of which there is an ex- cellent print by count Gaudt, fhews that bright and fudden light was not abfolutely neceffary to the difplay of his powers, and that he dipped his pencil in early dawn, with equal felicity. _. The accuracy of his obfervation, and the retention of his memory were great, and the {kill was fcarcely lefs with which he introduced into his compofitions, fuch pi€turefque inci- dents as he had once feen. Pilkington fays that ‘ it is im- poffible to conceive any thing more exquifite in painting than the productions of the pencil of Elfheimer; for whether we confider the fine tafte of his defign ; the neatnefs and correét- nefs of the drawing of his figures; the admirable management and diftribution of his lights and fhades; the lightnefs, the fpirit, and the delicacy of his touch; or the excellence of colouring ; we are aftonifhed to obferve fuch combined perfeCtions in one artift ; in whofe works even the minuteft parts will bear the mott critical ipfpeétion, and the whole together is inexpreffibly beautiful. He underitood the prin- ciples of chiaro-fcuro to the utmoft perfeétion ; and thewed the folidity of his judgment in the management of his fub- jefts, which for the moft part were night-pieces, by candle, or torch light,”” &c. "
With thefe high claims to contemporary patronage, it wae the fate of Elfhcimer to fall a martyr to his own merits, Not affluence, nor even comfort, attended him in his pro- feffional purfuits. His family was numerous, and the great care with which his fenfibility to the minuter beauties of fature prompted him to finith his pictures, occupied fo
E L 3]
much time, thatthe was gradually overwhelmed with debts, and caft into prifon, Being much refpeéted, he was foon releafed ; probably by’his friend Gaudt, the engraver: but returned, {pirit-broken, to his art, and furvived not long, Pofterity will reverence his profeflional- merits, and regret his misfortunes. -
Of artiits of tranfcendant talent, it has been the frequent lot to receive from their contemporaries but a trifling earneft, either of the value of their works, or the extent of their fame: fo blind is tatte, with all its lofty pretenfions, or fo reluctant is human nature to recognife the claims of living excellence.
Among the moft celebrated of his works, which are known through Europe, by the’ diffufion of count Gaudt’s excellent engravings after them, may be ' mentioned his « Flight into Epypt,”” wherein he has contrafted the effe&ts of fire and moonlight ; two landfeapes, in each of which he has introduced “ Tobit and the Angel ;”” a «« Cottage Door by Candle-light, with Ceres drinking from a Pitcher ;”? the ftory of * Baucis and Philemon ;’? the ‘ Decollation of John the Baptift ;”? ‘* Latona and her Sons, with the Ly- cian Peafantsmetamorphoied into Frogs; and the “ Death of Procris:’? the two latter fubje@ts were engraver in En- gland by Magdalen Pafs. Some of his moft valued per- formances were late in the gallery of the grand duke of Tufcany.) L.
ELSHOLTZIA, in Botany, fo named by profeffor Willdenow in memory of a Pruffian botanift, John Sigifmund Eliheltz, who lived im the middle of the 17th century, and publitheda Flora Marchica, or catalogue of plants cultivated in the principal gardess of Brandenburg, printed at Berlin
-in 1663, infmall 8vo. Willdenow mentions alfo a manufcript
work on Florticulture by the fame writer in his native tongue, preferved in the royal library of Berlin. —Willden. in Romer Ufteris Magazine, fafe. 11. 1.t. % Sp. Pl. v. 3. 59. Clafs and order, Didynamia Gymnofpermia. Nat. Ord. Labiate, fe&. 3. Ju.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped, with ten furrows, and five oblong acute teeth; the orifice clofed with hairs. Cor. of one petal, ringent: tube cy- lindrical, fhort, the length of the calyx: upper lip fhorteit, obtufe, concave, four-toothed, clothed externally with long white hairs; lower obtufe, ftraight, fharply cre- nate, externally clothed with hairs. Stam. Filaments four; the two uppermoft fhorteft, lodged in the upper lip; the two lowermoft in the under one: anthers roundifh. Pift. Germens four, roundith, fuperior: {tyle thread-fhaped : {tigma cloven. Peric. none. Seeds four, naked, brownifh, in the bottom of the calyx. Willdenow.
Eff. Ch. Calyx tubular, five-cleft. Corolla ringent : upper lip four-toothed ; lower longeft, undivided, finely crenate. Stamens diftant.
1. E. criffata. Willd. as above. ( Hyffopus ocymifolius ; Lamarck Encycl. v. 3.187.) “ Spikes folitary, erect. ?* Native of Siberia, about the lake Baikal. Root annual, fibrous, Herb with the habit of an ocymum, and avery fras grant fcent, efpecially when rubbed after drying, compared by fome to rofes,-but in our opinion more relembling the mufcat grape. Stem a foot or more in height, fquare, leafy, with oppotite branches. Leaves ftalked, oppofite, ovate, acute, ferrated, light green, {mooth, Spikes terminal, folitary, ftalked, unilateral, confifting an one fide of a double row of obovate, pointed, imbricated braéteas, and on the other of three or four denfe rows of pale lilac-coloured flowers, This plant is propagated by feed, with little trouble, in our
ardens, but has more fingularity than beauty in its afpect, Lhe {cent indeed renders it defirable, ‘ - 2. de
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2. E. paniculata, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 59. (Hyffopus criftatus; Latharck Encycl. v. 3. 187. Mandm-podam ; Rheede Hort. Mal. v. 10. 129. t. 65.) ‘* Spikes panicled, reflexed. ”? Native of moift places on the coaft of Malabar. Lamarck, who had in his peffeffion fine {pecimens of this plant from Sonnerat, affures us that the leaves are not al- teraate, as drawn in the Hortus Malabaricus, but oppofite as in the preceding {pecies, with which he rightly perceived its generic aflinity. be in the inflorefcence, which ia the plant we are deferibing is panicled, each branch of the panicle confifting of a nu- merous feries of reflexed {pikes, fhorter than in the former, with more oblique, unequally cordate, braéteas. Every part of this herb is faid to exhale an agreeable aromatic odour. The root feems to besannual. t
ELSIMBURG, in Geography. See Heusinaurs.
ELSINEUR, jin Danith Hel/ingoer, a handfome town of Denmark, in the ifland of Zealand, at the entrance of the Baltic, oppofite the Swedith coaft, 20 miles N. of Copenhagen. E. long. 12° 34/. N. lat. 55° 55. The population amounts to between 6and 7000 individuals. It derives its name from the Helfingers, an ancient Gothic co- lony, and is fituated on the declivity of a hill, almoft dire&tly over-againft Helfinburg, in the Swedifh province of Scania. The paflage is not above 4 Englifh miles. The narrow arm of the fea, which joins the North fea and the Baltic, is called the Oerefund, or Sound, and is proteéted by the caftle of Cronenburg, which fee.
Till the year 1425, when king Erick of Pomerania tbeftowed on it the privileges of a city, Elfineur was but a {mall infignificant place. | [thas two churches, a grammar- Achool, feveral handfome private buildings, and a fugar- houfe. In 1753, a harbour was attempted, but the execu- tion of the projet was found impracticable. The road- ftead, however, is excellent.
The principal trade of Elfineur is in wine and {piritu- ous liquors; but it derives all its importance from the Sound dues, which, in'times of peace, are paid. at Elfineur by all -veflels paling through the Sound fromieither the Baltic or the North fea. The:euftom-houfe, where thefe duties are _paid, isa very fine building, and it is on account of this toll, that all nations trading in'the Baltic keep a conful at Elfiveur. The Sound dues are in proportion to the fize of the fhip and to the value of the cargo. They were origi- nally a mere contribution to the expence -of ‘keeping light- houfes on the: coalt.
. The number of 'veflels sof different nations that failed through, the Sound and paidthe dues at Elfineur, was in 1768 ~ teh lant *< 6: 30 veflels,
_ 2778 ~ Dem ue he 98476 19788 © | oscil Gite = 9224 Iygeio Ss. re) js - 32,114 ¥798 © fom T= oes om = JQ 508 182 e - - - 12,130 1863 - - - - 115631 80g = 105579 1805 - - - - 311,587
1806 - - - - 7 40 And in the firft three months of REO dee pit - 342
From, which ftatement it appears, that the Baltic trade has been moft confiderable in the years 1792 and i802, which both preceded the two late ruptures between England and France. See Sounn.
ELSNABBAN, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the province of Sudermania, on the coaft of the Baltic; 32 miles E.N.E. of Nikioping. ~
The chief fpecific difference feems to «
ELS
ELSNER, James, in Biography, a do&tor of theology, was born, in 1692, at Saalfield, in Pruffia, and was deftined by his father for trade, to which, however, he felt fo ftrong a difinclination, that nothing could overcome it. He was ac- cordingly feat tothe univerfity of Konigfberg, where he became private tutor to fome young noblemen, and was afterwards appointed chaplain in the garrifon to field- marfhal count Alexander Yon Dohm. He next went to Utrecht and Leyden, where he formed an intimacy with the mott eminent literary chara@ters of thofe cities. In the year 1719, he publifhed a work on the delivery of the law on Mount Sinai, and fhortly after the firft volame of his“ Sacred Obfervations on the. New Teftament.” In the following - year he left Holland, at the invitation of his Pruffian ma- jetty, by whom he was appointed profeffor of theology and the oriental languages at Lingen, having firft taken his de- pree of doétor at Utrecht. From this place he was called to Berlin to reftore the reputation of Joachim’s fchool, which had fallen into much difrepute for want of proper difcipline. Elf{ner performed all that was required of him, andattaineda high degree of refpeét, by the dignity and firmnefs of his manners. In the autumn of 1722, he pro- nounced an inaugural difcourfe on the obligation of unitin piety to learning; and immediately after this, he was chofen a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences. «Other pre- ferments were conferred upon him, and he was always very fully employed either as a preacher or an author; and, in 1742, he was appointed direGtor of the clafs of the belles-lettres in the Royal Academy; and when the fociety was renewed in 1724, he retained the fame office, and maintained the character which he had heretofore fupported, as well by his attention to his academical duties, as by the learned differtations with which he en- riched the memoirs of the inftitution. He died of a fever on the eighth of Ogtober, 1750. His works are very numerous, and on various topics, but chiefly in theelogy. He publifhed alfo, «* A new defcription of the ftate of the
-Greek Chriftians in Turkey,” in which he received very
important affiftance from Athanafius Doroftamos, who came to Berlin to colle& money forthe Chriftian flaves in England.
ELSTER, originally Halfrow, in Geography, a {mall town of the kingdom of Saxony, in Upper Lufatia, on a river called the Black Elfler, remarkable for its manu- facture of knitted ftockings.
ELSTERBERG, a {mall town of the kingdom of
“Saxony, in the circle of Voigtland, between fome high hills
onthe river Elfter, with an old ruined caftle. It has a grammar-fchool, about 20-0 inhabitants, and a flourifhing manufacture of ftuffs and woollen cloth.
ELSTERWERDA, a {mall town of the kingdom of Saxony, in the circle of Merflen, on the river Eliter, with a fine hunting ealtle and a beautiful park. It has only joo inhabitants; but is remarkable for a canal which was du here in | 740, and by means of which it has a confiderab! timber trade to Meiffen and Drefden.
ELSTOB, Wirtram, in Biography, was born at New- ealtle-upon-Tyne, in the year 1673. He was educated at Eton and Cambridge, but the latter place not being con- genial to his health, he removed to Queen’s coilege Oxford, where he was chofen fellow and tutor. In the year 1697, he took his degree of M.A., and in 1702 was appointed _ re€tor of the united parifhes of St. Swithin and St. Mary Bothaw in London. Hediedin .7.4, when he was only forty-one years of age. He publifhed feveral works, and had colle&ted smanaeiel for a hiftory of Newcaftle. He had likewife projected many literary defigns, of which the moft
important,
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= eo —_ oe ——s*7
at
a
ya
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important, was an edition of the Saxon laws, with great additions, together with notes of various learned men, and a prefatory hiftory of the origin and progrefs of the Englith laws, down to the Conqueror and to Magna Charta. This great work was completed in 1721 by Dr. Wilkins, who deplores the lofs which the literary world had fuftained in the early death of Mr. Elftob, He intended alfo a tranf- lation, with notes, of Alfred’s Paraphraftic Verfion of Orofius, of which his collections came into the poffeffion of thelate Dr. Tegge. This work was afterwards publifhed by the Hon. Daines Barrington, with an Englifh tranflation, who made.ufe of Mr. Elftob’s tranfeript. Biog. Brit.
Ecsros, Exizasers, fitter of the preceding, was at-
tached to the fame kind of purfuits, and was born at New- eaftle in 1683. Froma very early period the fhewed a ftrong predile€tion for literary purfuits. She refided at Ox- ford during her brother’s continuance at that univertity, and is defcribed as having been the indefeffa comes of his ftudies. She probably accompanied him to London, and affitted him in his antiquarian purfuits. “To one ofthis publications, viz. the Homily on St. Gregory’s day, fhe gave an Englifh tranflation, and a preface in vindication of female learning. By the encouragement of Dr.’ Hickes, fhe undertook a Saxon Homiliarium with an Englih tranflation, notes, and various readings, but only'a few of the homilies were printed at Oxford in folio. In the year 1715, fhe publifhed a * Saxon Grammar,’’ the types for which had been cut at the expenice of lord chief juitice Parker, afterwards earl of Macclesfield. After the death of her brother, her circum- frances were fo very low, that fhe was reduced to the necef- ity of keeping a ichool at Evefham, in Worcetterthire. By the interceffion of fome friends, queen Caroline allowed her a penfion of twenty guineas, which was paid very regularly till the death of that princefs, when fhe was again reduced to great difficulties, and had recourfe to education as a re- fuge from poverty. In 1739, fhe was received into the family of the duchefs of Portland, where fhe continued till her death inthe year 1756. Biog. Brit. - .ELSYNGE, Henry, was born at Batterfea in 1598, and received his education at Weftminfter-{chool, and Chrift-church college, Oxford, From the univerfity he went to the continent, and fpent feven years in foreign travel. Upon his return he was, through the intereft of archbifhop Laud, ele&ted clerk of the houfe of commons, the duties of which office he performed with fingular ability, and much credit. He acquired the efteem of all parties in the midft of much difcord and faétion, and kept his poft under the long parliament till December 1648, when he chofe to re- tire rather than take a part in the trial of the king, After this, he declined public bufinefs till his death in 1654. As an author his chief publication was entitled *’[he ancient Method and Manner of holding Parliaments in England.’’ This was firft printed in 1663. Anthony Wood fuppofed thateit was chiefly tranferibed from a MS. of the author’s father, who was clerk of the houfe of lords, but there is no doubt it received many valuable additions from our au- thor’s own parliamentary experience. Mr. Elfynge left a tra&t concerning proccedings in parliament, never publifhed ; and alfo other traéts and memorials. Biog. Brit.
ELTEN, in Geography, a {mall town of ‘Germany, in the new ‘kingdom of Weltphalia, formerly a free imperial abbey, which was fecularized at the peace of Luneville, and given as an indemnity to the king of Pruffia, who loft it again at the peace of Tilfit in July, 1807. y » ELTERLEIN, a {mall town of the kingdom of Sax- ony; in the circle of the Ertzgebirge, fituated between Annaberg and Grunhayn, with about 1000 inhabitants. It
EL -¥
is chiefly remarkable for the adjacent mines, which yield ex- cellent. magnefia and a very fine potters? clay for china. There is likewife a good manufaéture of thread lace at Elterlein.
ELTHAM, a large village in the hundred of Black- heath and lathe of Sutton, in the cou ty of Kent, Eng- land, confilts of 256 houfes, which are orcupied hy 1627 inhabitants. *Its ancient name was Eald-ham, the old man- fion or dwelling. John de Vefei, lord of Eltham, procured a grant of a market for this manor; and two other grants relating to it are. extant among the records in the Tower. The market appears to have been difcontinued in the time of James I., when the royal palace, the remains of which ftand about two furlongs fouthward from the village, ceafed to be vifited by our kings.
Eltham palace was for feveral centuries a favourite re= treat of the Englifh fovereigns, to which, probably, its vicinity to the metropolis contributed, as well as the plea- fantneis of its fituation. When it was originally built is un- known, yet it muft have been prior to the year 1270, when Henry EI. kept a grand public chriftmas kere, accompanied by his queen and all the great men of the realm. Ia the next reign, Anthony Bec, the warlike bifhop of Durham, obtained poffeflion of it, and confiderably improved it: he died here''in-1grt. ‘Edward II. frequently refided here ; and in the year 1315, ‘his queen was delivered of a fon in the palace, who was ealled John of Eltham, from the place of his birth. Edward ITI. held a parliament here in 1329, and another in 1375, when the Commons petitioned him to’make his grandion, Richard de Bourdeaux, prince of Wales. Edward IV. was at a great expence in repair- ing the palace, where, in 1482, he kept his chriftmas in a very magnificent and coftly manner, two thoufand perfons being daily fed at his charge. Mot of the fuceeeding monarchs, to the time of Henry VIII., refided much in this palace ; but on the rife of Greenwich it was gradually deferted. The change which it has undergone is exceedingly ftriking : formerly the ‘abode of fovereigns, and the birth-place of princes, it is now a farm; and the beautiful great hall, where parliaments were held, and entertainments given in all the pomp of feudal grandeur, is now ufed as a barn for the houling and threfhing of corn. The area, in which the buildings ftand, is furrounded by a high ftone wall, that has been partially repaired and ftrengthened by arches, &c. of brick, anda broad and deep moat, over which are two bridges, nearly oppofite to each other, on the north and fouth fides. “The hall is a moft noble remain, meafuring 100 feet in length, by 56 broad, and about 60 high. The windows have been extremely elegant, but are now bricked up. The roof is of timber, curioufly wrought in the man- ner of that of Weftminfter-hall, and richly ornamented with finely carved pendants. Three parks, well provided with deer, were formerly conneéted with this palace: in the largeft, which includes an area of two miles in circumfer- ence, ftands a refpeGtable manfion, called Eltham lodge. Hiafted’s Hiftery of Kent.
ELTMAN, a town of Germany, inthe circle of Fran- conia, and bifhopric of \Vurzburg; 8 miles W.N.W. of Bamberg, and go E.N.E. of Wurzburg.
ELVAS, formerly Je/ves, a town and bifhop’s fee of Portugal, in the province of Alentejo, containing three parifh churches, feven convents, two hofpitals, and 12,500 inhabitants, including the diftrict, in an open and fruitful territory, 18 leagues N.E. of Evora, and fix W. of Bada- joz, in Spain. It has a caftle on an eminence, and is com- manded by Fort la Lippe, a new and {trong fortification on the top ofa hill, Here isa remarkable aquedu&, fup-
ported
E LU
ported in fome places by three arches one over the other; the ftreets are narrow, irregular, and dirty ; and the. houfes are indifferently built. At fome diitance from the town the country is bleak and barren. N, lat. 38° 44'. W..long. 7°.
ELV. See Exrs. {
ELUDING, the aé& of evading, or rendering a thing vain, and of no effect: a dextrous getting clear, or efcaping out of an affair, difficulty, embarraflment, or the like.
We fay, to elude a propofition, &c. The defign of chi- eanery is, to elude the force of the laws; this doctor has not refolved the difficulty, but cluded it.. Alexander, fays the hiftorian, in cutting the Gordian knot, either eluded the oracle, or fulfilled it: *Ille nequicquam luétatus cum latentibus nodis, Nihil, inquit, intereit, quomodo folvatur ; gladioque ruptis omnibus loris, oraculi fortem, vel eludit vel implevit.” Q. Curt. 13.
ELVEN, in Geography, a {mall town of France, in the department of Morbihan, chief place of a canton in the diftriét of Vannes, with a population of 3829 individuals. The canton contains five communes and 9136 inhabitants, upon a territorial extent of 220 kiliometres.
ELVERDINGHE, a {mall town of France, in. the department of the Lys, chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Ypres, with 2729 inhabitants. Its canton has a population of 9057 individuals difperfed in 9. communes, on a territorial extent of 1124 kiliometres.
ELVERS, in Jchthyology, an Englifh name fora fmall fort of eels, caught in fome parts of the kingdom, parti- cularly about Gloucefter and Tewkfbury. Thefe are, in reality, young cofigers, or fea-eels. They get up into rivers while very fmall, and as they precede the fhads, it is conjectured that they fupply them with food. They are taken in prodigious numbers in the rivers, in dark nights, by akind of fieve made of hair-cloth, fixed to a long pole, and are efteemed a very delicate food. Willughby.
EL-VISO, in Geography, a welt built town of Spain, in the province of New-Cattile, and diftri& of La Manche, containing a parifh church, a convent, a palace of the marquis D’EI-Vifo, and 3500 inhabitants, about 20 leagues S.W. of Alcaraz; and 13 S.S.E. of Ciudad a fituated in a fertile plain, producing corn, wine, and ruits.
ELVIUS, Perer, in Biography, was born at Upfal in 1710, and applied himfelf in early life to the fiudy of mechanics, under able matters. royal college of Mines entrufted him with the care of its colleé&tion of machines. His own knowledge enabled him to conftrué a fulling mill on new principles. In 1743 he undertook, with M. O. Hamren, a tour through the king- dom of Sweden, to examine where the beft fituations could be obtained for works to be driven by water; and on this occafion he drew plans of thofe places which feemed moft convenient for the purpofe. For this fervice he obtained a place in the academy of Upfal, and applied himfelf to the calculation of chances and probabilities, which led him to confider the exifting bills of mortality, and the means for rendering them more accurate and ufeful. He was a diligent obferver of the heavens, and on the ifland of Huen fearched out the ruins of the refidence of Tycho Brahe, and made fome celeftial obfervations amid{ft the remains of Uranien- burg. He died at the early age of 38, on the 27th of Sept. 1749, and the Academy of Sciences, to which he had been the fecretary, caufed a medal to be ftruck in houour of his memory, Gen. Biog.
ELUL, in Chronology, one of the Hebrew months, anfwering partly to our Auguit and September. There are but nine and twenty daysin it. It is the twelfth month
In the year. 1738, the
EL W
of the civil year, and the fixth of the eeclefiaftical. Upon the feventh or ninth day of this month the Jews falt, in me, mory of what happened after the return of thofe who went to view the promifed land. Numbers, Xilly xiv. Aide
Upon the twenty-fecond of this month, the f val of the xylophori was obferved, when wood was cai to the temple. Selden fays, that it was celebrated ontheeighteenth - day of the month Ab. On the twenty-fixth of the fame month, the dedication of the walls of Jerufalem by Nehe- miah was commemorated. Jofeph. lib. ii. cap. 17. p. 811. Nehem. xii. 27, &c. Calmet, Diétion. Bibl. wan
ELVO, in Geography, a river of ltaly, which runs into the Sefia, 2 miles N. of Vercelle. j
ELUSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, ia Idumzxa, W. of Jordan, according to Ptolemy. This town was once an epifcopal city, and itis placed by P. Hardouin in the third Paleftine. a> Lape
Exvsa, called alfo Zlu/e, and Civitas Elufatium, atown of Gaul, was formerly the metropolis of Novempopulania, and maintained that rank till the eighth century. But its deftrution by the Normans, the fee of Auch was ad- vanced to the rank of Metropolitan. Some remains of this
lace retain the name of Ciutat near Eufe.
ELUSATES, the inhabitants of Elufa, who occupied the N.W. diftri& of Armagnac, Czfar mentions them, and places them between the Tarufates and the Garites.
ELUTRIATION, or waj/bing over; is a method of feparating fubftances of different {pecific gravities fromeach other by means of water. For this purpofe the mixture is ftirred about brifkly in a veffel full of water, and the heavier particles have again fallen to the bottom, the water, {till turbid with the lighter ones that are as yet fuf- pended, is poured off into another veffel, to the bottom of which they, ina fhort time, fubfide. By this fimple method a {kilful perfon will feparate from each other three or four
fubitances with great exaétnefs. ; ELUVIES, in Geology, is a term ufed by Mr. ah a fon, (Organic Remains, i. 275.) and fome other to exprefs the fuppofed ruins of the antediluvian earth, ef- fected by the Noachic deluge, but which it is prefumed by others, from the Mofaic account of that miracle, did not de- ftroy the. exifting vegetable produGtions or the fifh, and much lefs therefore could it have effeted the univerfal dif integration of mineral fubitances, on which Dr, Weoodward’s and fome other theories are built. Befides, the animal and vegetable fubftances, which are found imbedded in the fup- poled poft-diluvian,ftrata, are none of them of the fpecies, which, by the eftablifhed modes of generation, have been handed down to us, immediately from thofe sindiyiduals of each {pecies which Noah preferved in the ark, when the reft were drowned by the flood. : iss sss ELUXATIO, (from e/uxo, to put out of joint,).a dif- location. ; x ELWAD-AD, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the country of Yemen; about 40-miles nearly W. of Chamirs N. lar. 16° 16’. Ex long. 42° 30!. mt b on ELWALL, Epwanrop, in Biography, was born at Sedgs ley, near Wolverhampton, in Staffordfhire. At Wolver= hampton he fettled in bufinefs, and acquired the reputation of honefty and great integrity in his dealings. ~As a poli- tician, he was diftinguifhed as the zealous affertor of the civil and religious rights of the people, and asa vigorous fupportér of the Hanoverian fucceflion. He was of a ferious and in- quifitive turn of mind, and never hefitated to: proclaim his fentiments on any fubject that he deemed important. - confidered the fourth commandment as binding on all gene» rations, and not only wrote in defence of the opinion, bit Z while
Ree
while in bufinefs, conftantly fhut up his fhop on the feventh day, and opened it on the firlt day of the week ; hence he was ftigmatized asa Jew. About the year 1714 he became diltinguifhed as an Unitarian, and publifhed “ A true Teftimony for God and his facred Law, being a Defence of the firlt Commandment of God, againtt all 'Tvinitarians under Heaven.” This drew on him the refentment of the neighbouring clergy, who ceafed not to purfue him with ‘their enmity, till they procured au indi€iment againft him for herefy and blafphemy ; on which he was tried, without having had a copy of his indiétment, before judge Denton about the year 1726, at Staflord affizes. He pleaded his ‘own caufe, and vindicated the principles which he had embraced with a firmnefs and prefence of mind, faid to have -been rarely equalled in modern times, and with complete Muccefs, for a refpeftable and honett jury, under the direc- -tion of an upright judge, acquitted him. Mr. Elwall was not daunted by the obloquy and profecution which his firft spiece had drawn on him from defending with freedom the fentiments for which he had fuffered, but publifhed feveral other traéte, having the fame tendency. After his trial he removed to London, and became a member of the feventh- day Baptift church at Mill-yard, Goodman’s fields. In the Jatter part of his life he frequently attended the religious affemblics of the quakers, and was fometimes admitted to {peak among them, He died in London at an advanced age, with an unfullied reputation, about the year 1745. He had not. enjoyed the advantages of a learned educa- tion; but his natural abilities, and good judgment, were fuch as rendered his converlation agreeable to perfons in the higher ranks of fociety, by whom he was known, and re- f{peted, on account of his ardent attachment to the houfe of Hanover. Speaking of himfelf, his principles, and con- duét, he fays, “ I have been a fturdy and itrenuous friend to my royal friend George thefe forty years and up- wards, ever fince the nation happily fettled the crown in his illuftrious family; and many a ftately Jacobite and Tory have 1 filenced by dint of argument, and brought to the ground by dint of fift, yet generally in felf-defence, and not to convince his judgment.’”? He was a man of inflexible in- tegrity and of extenfive charity, as well as of fervent piety.
ELWANGEN, in Geography, a {mall town of the king- dom of Wurtemberg, 18 miles S.E. of Halle, in Suabia, and 30 8.W. of Anfpach, It was formerly a rich abbey of the German empire, whofe prelate ranked as a prince, and voted in the college of princes, At the peace of Lu- neville it was given to Wurtemberg as an indemnity for the territory which its fovereign was forced to cede to France on the weftern fhore of the Rhine.
ELWY, Britain, the name of two rivers in Wales, one rifing near Gwythrin, in the weft part of Denbighshire, in North Wales, runs eaftward for fome miles, then fuddenly turning northward above St. Afaph, pafles by that city, and falls into the Clwyd, about three miles below it. An- other river of the fame name rifes in the mountains to the northward of Capelton Ybedyddier, in Glamorganhhire, South Wales; and running in a fouth-eafterly direGtion paffes Henfall park, St. Fagan’s, &c. and meeting the Taf, at the Embochure, near Penarth-point, forms Penarth harbour.
ELXAI, in Biography. See Evcesarres.
ELY, Isve of, in Geography, a tra& of land fo called, is fituated in the northern part of Cambridgefhire, England, and was formerly furrounded by waters; but, in confequence of the vaft improvements made by draining the fens, &c. it is now merely known by the name of an ifland. The whole diftrié, called the ifle of Ely, extends from the
Vou. XIII.
- and a grant of a fair
EL Y
bridge at Tyd on the north, to Upwere on the fouth, z8 , miles in length ; and from Abbot’s or Bifhop’s Delf on the eat, to the river Nene, near Peterborough, on the welt, 25 miles in breadth ; and includes feveral cosfiderable towns and villages, of thefe the principal place is / Ey, which, though far Som populous, claims, as being the fee of a bifhop, the appellation of a city. It is fituated on a {mall eminence near the river Oufe, and owes its origim to the eftablifhment of a monattery here, A.D. 673, by Etheldreda, daughter of Anna, king of Eaft-Anglia. At- ter her death, in 679, the government of the abbey fuc- ceflively devolved on her filter Sexburga, queen of Kent; Ermenilda, queen of Mercia, daughter of Sexburga, and
.the princels Werburga, her grand-daughter, all of whom
were, with the foundrefs, for many centuries confidered as faints. A town gradually arofe about the monaftery ; and both remained in peace and fecurity till the year 870, when this place of monaftic retirement was difcovered by the Danes, who invaded the ifle, and, though at firft repulfed by the bravery of the inhabitants, returned in greater numbers, and overcame every defenfive effort. They put the religious to the {word, fet fire to the church and other buildings, and departed, loaded with the {poil, not only of the town and monaftery, but alfo of all the neighbouring places, whofe inhabitants had depofited their valuables here for better fecurity. Some of the inmates of the monattery, who had efcaped the maflacre by flight, returned a few years afterwards, and commenced a college for fecular clergy, which continued till g70, when the monaftery was reftored to its former eftablifhment by Ethelwold, bifhop of Winchefters under the patronage of king Edgar, who, in confideration of a large {um paid by the bilhop, gave up to the convent the jurifdiction of the ifle, which after the Danith maffacre had been annexed to the crown. Buifhop Ethelwold be- ftowed large benefa€tions on the abbey, which now con- _ fitted of regular monks of the order of St. Auguiftine. Brithnoth, the firlt abbot, exerted himfelf to complete the repairs of the church. The abbey continued to prof- per till the conquett: its privileges being previoufly aug- mented and confirmed by Canute, and again by Edward the Confeffor, the latter of whom had received his education within its walls. During the confufion which enfued on the Norman inyafion, the abbey was deprived of many eftates ¢ and Thurftan the abbot, fearing that its whole poffeffions would be feiaed by the Conqueror, refolved to fuppurt the intereft_of Edgar Atheling, in which he was joined by feveral Englith nobles, who were determined to defend their country from the dominion of William, whom they regarded as an ufurper. A vigorous, and, for fome time, effeGual refiftance was made; but at length, the abbot having feceded from the confederacy, the fuperior prowefs of the Norman foldiers prevailed. Great numbers of the Englith were flain in battle; and many of thofe, who were made prifoners, were cruelly mutilated; fome having their eyes put out, and others their hands and feet cut off, that they might re- main living monuments of the Conqueror’s vengeance, and become a terror to fuch as difputed his authority.
A bifhop’s fee was eftablithed here in 1107, and Henry, bifhop of Bangor, was appointed the firft diocefan. This prelate procured a gifts and privileges for his bifhopric,
or the city, to continue for feven days.
The king granted a mandate to make an equal divilion of the abbey eftates, between the prelate and the abbot, but the former contrived to retain a full third of the pofleffions more than he wasentitledto. On the furrender of the mo« naftery to Henry VIII. that monarch granted his letter- patent, dated September 10, 1541, to convert the conven- D tual
. EL Y.
tual church jute a cathedral, by the title of the Cathedral Church of the Undivided Trinity ; the eftablifiment for the perfarmance of divine fervice to confift of a dean, a prieft, and eight prebendaries, with other minifters : the dean and prebendaries to form a body corporate. The bifhop of Ely pofleffes the rights of a lord of a county palatine, and is fovereigu within the ifle, where all caufes are heard and determined by a judge of his appointing, who holds affizes, gaol delivery, and quarter feffions,
The cathedral is the workmanfhip of very different pe- riods, and.difplays a fingular admixture of the Saxon, Nor- man, and Englifh ftyles of architecture; yet, notwithitand- ing the diffimilarity of its parts, it muft, when confidered as a whole, be regarded as a very magnificent ftruéture. The north and fouth tranfepts, which are the oldeft parts, were erected in the reigns of William Rufus and Henry I. Here the arches are femi-circular, as well as in the nave, which was begun in the reign of the latter monarch, and completed betore 1174, Between this period and the year 1189, bifhop Rydel ereéted the great tower at the weft end, which was anciently flanked on the north fide by a building of the fame kind as that on the fouth: but this either fell or was taken down, and another building begun in its place. This was never carried higher than 12 or 14 feet. The interior view of this tower is particularly beau- tiful, it being decorated with fmall columns and arches run- ning round in feveral ftories, and lighted by 27 windows. The lower patt was repaired, and new cafed with ftone, in the middle of the rsth century. The handfome veflibule vat the entrance, formerly called the Galilee, was built about the year 1200, by bifhop Euftachius. \'The foundation of the elegant {truéture which was originally the prefbytery, but now forms the choir, was laid by Hugh Northwold, the eighth bifhop, in the year 1234, and finifhed in 1250. ‘The three moft weftern arches were deftroyed by the fall of the lofty central tower, in the night of the y2th of Fe- bruary, 1322. To prevent the recurrence of a like acci- dent, Alan de. Walfingham, fub-prior of the convent, and facrift.of the church, a perfon eminently fkilled in archi- tecture, defigned and erefted the prefent magnificent octa- gon, which is fupported on eight pillars, and terminated by a lantern. The capitals of the pillars are ornamented avith hiftorical carvings, reprefenting the principal events in the life of Etheldreda. This o€tagon is probably unequalled by any of the kind: the ftone work was completed in fix years, and the wood work raifed thereon, and covered with jead, in about 15 years. The whole was perfeéted in the year 1342, at the expence of 2406/. 4s. 11d. The three arches eaftward of the o&agon were rebuilt about the fame period, by bifhop Hotham, and are very much embellifhed. 4\t the eaft end of the north aifle is a fumptuous chapel, ere€ted by bifhop Alcock, who died at his caftle at Wif- bech, in 1500. His tomb, with his effigy lying thereon, but much defaced, is placed under an arch of ftone on the north fide. In the fouth aifle, and in fome refpeéts correfpond- ing with the former, but much fuperior in its embellifh- ments, is another chapel, which was ereéted by bifhop Welt, about the year 1530, and is highly enriched with ornaments and elegant tracery, &c. Both thefe chapels were greatly dilapidated by the enthufiaftic reformers who {prung up during the civil wars, and feem to have had an invincible antipathy to every religious edifice that difplayed tafte and elegance.
The extreme extent of the cathedral, from eaft to weft; is 535 feet; but the interior length is only 517. The length of the tranfept is 190 feet, the height of the lan- tern.oyer, 170, ‘The extreme height of the weftera tower
270, and the tower on the fouth wing of the latter 220. The length of the nave is 203 feet, and the height of the roof’ over it 104. The height of the eaftern front to the top of the crofsis 112 feet. Near the eaft end of the cathedral, on the north fide, is St. Mary’s chapel, now Trinity church; it hav- ing been afligned to the ufe of the inhabitants of that parith foon after the Reftoration, by the dean and chapter. This elegant ftru€ture was commenced in the reign of Edward II, and is one of the moft perfeét buildings of that age. The fhape is an oblong {quare; the interior ength bein 200 feet, the breadth 46, and the height of the vaulte roof 60, This building has neither pillars nor fide aifles, but is fupported by ftrong buttrefles, furmounted with pinnacles, ‘The fpaces over the eaft and weft windows were formerly decorated with ftatues, and a variety of well~ executed fculpture: and the interior was embellifhed with niches highly carved, and enriched with ftatues, orna~ mental foliage, and flower-work. This edifice was built at the charge of the convent by John de Wilbech, one of the monks, and Alan de Walfingham, who ere&ted the o€tagon, The firft {tone was laid by the latter on Lady-day, 1321. The cloifters, and other buildings belonging to the monaf- tery, have been long fince demolifhed; with the exception of the refectory, which has been converted into the deanery; and an elegant little chapel built by prior Crauden, now ufed as a granary, adjoining to it.
The principal charitable benefaction for the ufe of the poor of Ely is vefted in the churchwardens, and arifes from eftates in the neighbourhood, bequeathed by - Par. fon, about the year 1425. Here isalfoa free-{chool, fu ported by the dean and chapter; anda charity-fehool for twenty-four boys, who are educated and cloathed by the income of an eftate bequeathed by Mrs. Needham about 1740. The police of Ely is regulated by the magiftrates, who are appointed by the bifhop, and are juftices of the peace within the ifle. Thefe meet for the difpatch of bu- finefs every market-day, which was altered in 1802 from Saturday to Thurfday. This city is the only one in Eng- land not reprefented in parliament, Many of the houfes are of ftone, and fome of them have an ancient appearance. The ftreets are irregular, and, with the exception of the principal one, neither lighted nor paved. ‘The population, as afcertained under the late at, was 37135 the number of houfes about 700. The chief employment of the inhabit- ants is gardening, which is carried on in this neighbourhood to a great extent. Cambridge, St. Ives, andeven London, receive confiderable fupplies of vegetables from this place. Great quantities of ftrawberries are alfo reared here, and fome other fruits ; but thefe are chiefly conveyed in barges to Lynn, and carried thence by the veffels employed in the coal trade to Newcaftle-upon-Tyne, and other places in the north of England.
The Rev. James Bentham, author of “« The Hiftory and Antiquities of the conventual and cathedral church of Ely,” was a native of this city. Some account of this gentleman has already appeared in this work. (See Benruam.) An interefting and well written account of Ely cathedral has recently been publifhed by the Rev. Mr. Miller, of this place. See alfo Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. ii.
About one mile from Ely is Tatterfall-hall, which de- rived its name from the late Mr. Tatterfall, of fporting memory, and is now poflefied by his fon. :
Evy, £lie, or Ellie, a parith of Fifethire, in Scot- land, within which is an ancient royal borough of the fame name. This is fituated clofe to the fea, on the fouthern fhore of the Frith of Forth, where there is an excellent harbour, much reforted to by ‘ wind-bound veffels.?? Seven
{quare~
ELY
uare-rigged veffels, carrying rcoo or 1100 tons, belon in ieee employed ty foiaign trade. Veffels of beige fize are built here; and in the town are fome manufactories for checks, bed-ticks, and ropes. Near the fhore rubies have been difcovered. Contiguous to the town, in the face of Kincraig rocks, is the cave of Mac-Duff, in which it is related that Mac-Duff retreated from Macbeth and his fol- lowers. Malcolm granted many privileges to this town. Sinclair’s ftatiftical Account of Scotland.
ELYMAIS, in Ancient Geography, or, as it is called by Strabo, Z/ymatis, a province of Pertia, lying between the rivers Eulzus and Oroates, and extending from the con- fines of Media to the Erythrean fea, or Perfian gulf. It was formerly divided into three great diftri€ts, viz. Mefa- batene, Gabene or Gabiene, and Carbiana, and containing the following cities, viz. Seleucia or Soluce, on the banks of the Hedypos or Hedypnus, which Strabo calls a great city, Safirate, at a fma!l diftance from mount Cafyrus, Badaca, on the Euleus, and Elymais, the metropolis of the province, famous for a rich temple confecrated to Diana, which Antiochus Epiphanes attempted to plunder, but he was obliged by the inhabitants to retire in difgrace to Media. This temple was afterwards plundered by one of the Parthian kings, who found in it, as we are informed by Strabo, 10,0co talents. In this country there was alfo a very rich temple confecrated to Jupiter Belus, which An- tiochus the Great attempted to plunder, but lott his life in the attempt. The country of Elymais was inhabited, according to Pliny, by the following nations, viz. the Oxii, er Uxii, Mizzi, Parthufi, Mardi, Saite, Hyi, Coffxi, Pareztaceni, and Meflabate. The Elymzans were a power- ful people, inured to the toils of war, fkilful bowmen, and never fubdued either by the Syro-Macedonian, or Parthian kings, but governed by their own princes. If we may depend upon the authority of Strabo, the rife of this king- dom may be dated from the downfall of the Perfian mo- narchy, for the ancients are agreed that the Ely mzans were {ubje& to the kings of Perfia; and if they never fubmitted to the Syrian yoke, they muft have been firft governed by their own princes, either in Alexander’s life-time, or foon
after his death. Nothing is known of their kings, but that °
they affifted Antiochus the Great in his wars with Rome, but afterwards cut him off in defence of their temple. They afterwards engaged, under the condué& of their king, .in a war againft the Babylonians and Sufians, in which they were affifted by the Coflzans with 13,000 archers.
Evymats is alfo a name given by fome writers to the city of Perfepolis.
ELYMI, or Herymy, a people who inhabited the N.W. part of Sicily, about the river Crimifa, where were fituated the towns of /Egefta or Acefta, Erice and Entella.
ELYMIA, a town of Greece, in the Peloponnefus, placed by Xenophon towards the tewns of Mantinea and Orchémene.
‘ ELYMIOT 2#, a people of Macedonia, who occupied a plain almoft furrounded by mountains, towards the fource of the river Aliacmen, according to Ptolemy, They had to the N. W. the country of the Lynceftes, to the N. E. Emathia, to the S. E. the Pelafgiotide, and to the S. W.
Pelagonia.
’ ELYMNIUM, one of the names of the ifland of Eubesa.—Alfo, a town of Macedonia, on mount Athos.
ELYMUS, in Agriculture, a term fignifying lime-grafs, a genus of grafles which are of but'little ule to the farmer, except in protecting the loofe fandy banks on the fea-fhores, in different parts of the ifland; and for which purpofe the following fort is the molt ufeful,
ys
FYLYY2
Exymus Arenarius, fea lime-prals, which is a Kind of grafs that, with the feareed, helps very much, according to the opinion of Mr. Sole, to futtain and keep up the loofe fand-banks on the borders of the fea, from the de- ftructive effects of the tides.
Exrymus, in Botany, dvzo; of Diofcorides, from edrua, to fold up, alluding to the fheath which inclofes the {pike or ear of fome fpecics. - This etymology applies at leaft to the Millet or Panick, fuppofed to be the ancient edujsoz, but Linnzus has adopted the name for a new genus of his own, akia to Hordeum and Triticum, to whichut is lefs fuitable. Linn. Gen. 39. Schreb. 54. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 467. Juff. gr. Sm. Fl. Brit.-152. Mart. Mill, Di. v. 2. Clafs and order, Zriandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gra- mina.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Common receptacle clonzated into a fpike. Perianth lateral, aggregate, coniifting ef two lan- ceolate glumes to each fpikelet. Cor. of two valves; the outer one largeft, pointed, awned; the inner concave, emarginate, finely fringed. Neétary a pair of oblong, acute, fringed feales. Stam. Filaments three, capillary, very fhort ; anthers oblong, cloven at the bafe. Pift, Germen turbinate ; flyles two, divaricated, fhort ; ftigmas feathery, Peric. none, except the permanent corolla. Seed folitary, linear, convex at the back, concealed by the glumes.
“Ef. Ch. Calyx lateral, aggregate, of two valves, con- tainining many florets.
A genus of large coarfe rigid graffes, for the moft part perennial, with long creeping roots. This lat quality renders the #. arenarius, Linn. Sp. Pl. 122. Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 1672. Knapp. t. 108, particularly valuable, as forming a natural barrier, in the loofe blowing fand of many fea fhores, to the encroachments of the ocean, bein indeed one of the principal means by which the induftrious Hollanders have gained a part of their territories from the fea. It is in England comprehended with 4rundo arenaria and Carex arenaria, (fee thofe articles,) under the name of Marram, and aéts of parliament have been made for their prefervation. The roots and leaves of fuch graffes being very durable, retain the blowing fand, of which they accumulate more and more as they extend in growth up- ward, and thus gradually form a natural and very firm bank. Ina clay foil they are of no avail. Of the econo- my of the American or Siberian fpecies of Elymus, we have no information. Two annual European fpecies, E. Caput-Medufe and E. Hy/lrix, are furnifhed with very long rough capillary awns, by which their feeds are not only wafted to a diftance, but detained by the accumulation of blowing fand, when they have once alighted, till they can fix themfelves by roots, ?
ELYOT, Sir Tuomas, in Biography, a gentleman
“eminent iv varicus branches of learning, and a patron and
friend of mot of the learned men in the reign of Henry VIL, was defcended of argood ‘family in. the county of Suffolk, and foa of iir Richard Elvot.. He was educat- ed at St. Mary’s Hall, in Oxford, where he made a great. progres in logic and philofophy ; but the year in which he entered, (like the year of his birth) is not certainly known ; it is, however, fuppofed to have been about the year 1514. After he:had ipent fome years at the univerfity, he travel- led into foreign countries, and, ou jis return, was intro- duced at comt. His uncommon genius and extenfive learning recommending him to the favour of Henry VIII. who was.a great patron of men of letters, shis majefty con- ferred upon him the honour of knighthood, and employed him in Several embaffies. . He fent him, particularly, to Rome in the year 1532, on) the fubjeti of the divorce of
D2 queca
EL 'Y"
queen Catharine, and afterwards to the emperor Charles V. in the year 1536. Elyot was, as Wood obferves (fee his Athen, Oxon.) an excellent grammarian, poet, rhetori- cian, philofopher, phyfician, cofmographer, and hifterian; and was diftingnifhed as much for his candour, and for the innocence and integrity of his life, as for his accomplifh- ments. He was admired and beloved by all the men of learn- ing who were his contemporaries, and his memory is cele- brated by them in their refpective works, particularly by Leland, in his “ Encomia Eruditorum Virorum.”? He was buried on the 25th of March 1546, in the church of Carleton, in Cambridgefhire, of which county he had been fheriff; and a monument was foon after erected over his grave. He poffeffed feveral manors in Cambridgefhire, and one or more in Hamphhire.
He wrote and tranflated feveral works. 1. ‘ The Caf- tell of Health,’’ which is faidto have been firft publithed in 15413; but Dr. Aikin obferves, that his edition of that year is afferted to be “ corrected, and in fome places aug- mented, by the firft author thereof.” It was reprinted in 1572, 1580, and 1595. The reading of the author, as it appears from’ his probeme, or preface, was unufually great, confidering that he did not follow the profeflion of phy- fic, having extended to the works of all the Greek, Ara- bian, and Roman writers of credit. This book was great- ly efteemed, not only by the public in general, but by fome of the faculcy in his time, and is, indeed, fully as worthy of notice as moft of the medical pieces of that age.- His rules for diet and regimen, when not drawn from Galenical theory, are on the whole founded upon plain good fenfe ; and he uniformly inculcates temperance of every kind. This he carries to a degree, with regard to certain enjoy- ments, that would ne doubt be generally thought fome- what too rigorous, except by fuch a bridegroom as the old gentleman in La Fontaine, who would be pleafed with our knight’s authority to add all the months, fron April to Odober, to the red letter days of his calendar.
We learn from the work in queftion, that the difeafe now called a cold, began to be common in England in the time of Elyot. ‘ At this prefent time,’”? he fays, ‘ in this realme of England, there is not any one more annoyance to the health of man’s body, than dittillations from the head, called rheums.”? The caufe of their being fo much more frequent than they ufed to be forty years before, he fuppofes to be ** banquettings after fupper, and drinking much, efpecially wine, a little after fleep;” and alfo cover- ing up the head too hot, a praétice which prevailed to fuch a degree, that he tells us, “ now a days, if a boy of feven years of age, ora young man of twenty years, have not two caps on his head, he and his friends will think that he may not continue in health ; and yet if the inner cap be not of velvet or fatin, a ferving man feareth to lofe his credence.”
The other works publifhed by fir Thomas Elyot, were, 2. © The Governor,” in three books, 1544, 8vo.; 3. ** Of the Education of Children ;’? 4. ‘* Banquet of Sapience ;’ 5. ‘* Prefervative againft the Fear of Death ;”’ 6. ‘¢ De re- bus memorabilibus Anglix ;” 7. ‘* An Apology for Good Women ;” 8. ‘* Bibliotheca Eliote, ow Elyot’s Library or Ditionary,” 1541, folio; which work was afterwards augmented and improved by Cooper. He tranflated alfo from the Greek into Englifh, “ The Image of Governance, compiled of the Arts and Sciences, by the Emperor Alex- ander Severus,”? 1556, 8vo.; and from the Latin into Englifh, *« St. Cyprian’s Sermons ot the Mortality of Man,” 1534, 8yo.; and, “ The Rule of a Chriftian Life,”’ writ- ten by Picus, earl of Mirandula, printed in the fame year.
7
‘ Bue (Gen, Biog. Di&, <Aikin’s Biog, Memoirs of Med. in Great Britain. ) ; = <8
ELYRUS, in Ancient Caographys a town of the ifland of Crete, which, according to Paufanias, was fituated in the mountains, . yok peel
ELYS Bay, in Geography, a bay of the ifland of An- ~ cs on the N. coaft, alittle to the fouth of Beggar’s
oint,
ELYSII, in Ancient Geography, a people who inhabit- ed the eaftern part of Germany..
ELYSIUM, Envei:, in the Ancient Theology, or rather Myshology, a place in the inferi, i. e, in the lower world, or, as we fometimes render it, in hell; furnifhed with fields, meads, agreeable woods, groves, fhades, rivers, &c. whi- ther the, fouls of good people were fuppofed to go after this life.
Orpheus, Hercules, and /Eneas, are fuppofed to have defcended into elyfium, in their life-time, and to have re- turned again. Virgil. lib. vi. ver. 638, &c. Tibullus, lib. i. eleg. 3. gives us fine defcriptions of the-elyfian fields.
Virgil oppofes elyfium to tartara ; which was the place where the wicked underwent their punifhment.
« Heic locuseft, partes ubi fe via findit in ambas : Dextera, que Ditis magni fub meenia tendit : Hac iter elyfium nobis: at leva malorum Exercet peenas, et ad impia tartara mittit.””
He affigns elyfium to thofe who died for their country, to thofe of pure lives, to truly infpired poets, to the inventors of arts, and to all who have done good to man- kind.
Some authors take the fable of elyfium to have been bor- rowed fromthe Pheenicians; as imagining the name ely- fium formed from the Pheenician Sy, alaz, or SS, alats, orD9OYys alas, to rejoice, or to be in joy ; the letter a being only changed into e, as we find done in many other names ; asin Enakim, for Anakim, &c. On which footing, ely- fian fields fhould fignify the fame thing as 2 place of plea-' fure ; or, “a
“ Locos letos, & ameena yireta Fortunatorum nemorum, fedefque beatas.”” Virg,
Others derive the word from the Greek aus, folve, I de- liver, I let loofe, or difengage, becaufe here men’s. fouls are freed, or difencumbered from the fetters of the body. . Be- roaidus and Hornius, Hift. Philofoph, lib. iii. cap. 2. take the place to have derived its name from Eliza, one of the firft perfons who came into Greece after the deluge, and the author and father of the /Etolians. According to Dio- dorus Siculus (1. 1..c. 36.) the whole fable of the infernal regions was borrowed from the fifheral rites of the Egyp- tians, and introduced into Greece by Orpheus. Hence Homer is faid to have borrowed his ideas and defcriptions, which occur in various parts of the Odyfley. Accordingly in the fourth book he gives the following account of ely- fium in the addrefsof Proteus to Menelaus:
‘* Elyfium fhall be thine ; the blifsful plains Of utmoft earth, where Rhadamanthus reigns. Joys-ever young, unmix’d with pain or fear, Fill the whole circle of th? eternal year : Stern winter {miles on that aufpicious climes The fields are florid with unfading prime: From the bleak pole no winds inclement blow, Mold the round hail, or flake the fleecy fnow. But from the breezy deep, the bleft inhale, ‘The fragrant murmurs of the weftern gale.??
Pope’s Od. b. iv. v. 765, &e. The
BOY
“The other poets as well as the philofophers feem to have eopied their notions of hell and of the elyfian fields from Homer, Plato, in his account of the {tate of departed {pirits, reprefents the foul of the deceafed as pafling into a place, which he calls divine, and as being there judged. If his life was conformable to the right of reafon, he is advanced to ahigher apartment, where he enjoys pleafure and profpe- rity in the fociety of the gods ; whilit the fouls of bad men fink into a noifome abyfs, there to dwellin thick darknefs, and to endure every kind of mifery. Socrates alfo adopted fimilar ideas. This philofopher diltinguifhed a three- fold ftate of fouls departed. Thofe who had neither fingular merit nor enotmous vices, inhabited the confines of Acherufia, where, being purified by the waters of the lake, they received the rewards of the few virtues they had prac- tifed. The fouls of the wicked wandered about their tombs, where they were tormented in different ways. After which, having drank the water of Lethe, they entered into new bodies, more or lefs honourable, according to their merit. The fouls of the good went immediately into the elyfian fields. Pythagoras maintained, that the foul, upon its im- mediate feparation from the body, was conducted by Mer- cury into a place of the pureft air, in which were the ely- fian fields, called by Virgil the ‘¢ aerial regions,” aerios cam-
. The fouls of the philofophers, which were the bett of all, became like to the gods, while thofe of the wicked were tormented by the furies without intermiffioa. “Both the one and the other, after a certain period of purification,
returned to the earth to animate new bodies. Thus did this philofopher inculcate, firftin Europe, the doétrine of the metempfychofis, or tranfmigration of fouls, which he is faid to have borrowed from the Egyptians, and which had been taught before by Orpheus and Homer, who had borrowed ny ee the fame people. Accordingly we learn from Herodotus, that the Egyptian priefts maintained, that the foul does not die with the body, but is received into Amenthes, which was a place under ground, refembling the hell of the Greek poets. Plutarch fays, that this word denotes “ that which gives, and that which receives,’? and_ adds, that it was a place~in the centre of the earth, the com- mon receptacle of departed fouls. Hence, after a certain period, they were releafed, and united to new bodies. The
oets have delivered fentiments fimilarto thofe of the phi-
Dolaphers concerning the ftate of fouls after death, and whilft each had his peculiar notions, all agreed, that the foul goes either to Elyfium or Tartarus; though they are far from being unanimous as to the fituation of thefe two manfions. Some place the elyfian fields in the middle re- gion of the air; fomein the moon; others in the fun; and others again in the centre of the earth adjoining to 'Tartarus. The tt common opinion is, that they lay in one of the ifles of the ocean, called the “ Fortunate iflands,’? which are reckoned to be the Canaries! According to Ol. Rud- becks the elyfian fields were fituated in Sweden. In the opinion of many of the ancients, the manfion of the bleffed was in the charming country of Betica (the prefent Anda- Infiain the extremity of Spain towards Cadiz,) whither the Pheenicians had travelled from the earlieft times, and which was reprefented as a delicious country, poflefling a fertile foil, abounding with enchanted groves, enriched by mines of gold and filver, and watered with rivers, ftreams, ° and fountains. According to Homer, the infernal regions were in the country of the Cimmerians, who are {aid to have inhabited the weltern coafts of Italy, near Baie and Pu- teoli, where Ulyffes arrives on the fame day that he takes his leave of Circe. Virgil has adopted Homer’s notion, and’
places the mouth of hell upon the fame coaft, near the lake
EMA
Avernus, Others, however, of the poets, place the entrance of hell at the promontory of Tenarus, where was the cave from which Hercules dragged Cerberus when he went down to hell. Others feek for it in Thefprotia, and Lucan refers it to the banks of the Euphrates. ‘The ancients differ in opinion with refpe& to the time, during which de- parted fouls continued in the infernal regions. Some fup-! pofe that fouls doomed to Tartarus continued there a thou- {and years, before the period of their tranfmigration com- menced. Pindar fixed the refidence of the bleffed in the elyfian fields for ever; whence, according to Virgil and the other poets, they were to depart aftera certain period of time, having drank the water of oblivion ; and this period was ufually limited to a thoufand years, (See Tarrarus.) The poets, Hoimer, Virgil, Pindar, Clau- dian, Catullus, &c. deferibe the regions of blifs under a variety of pleafing images, fuch as green bowers, gliding ftreams, murmuring fprings, charming meadows, ferene air, perpetual fprings, warbling birds, &c. Tibullus, whofe imagination was voluptuous, reprefents it as abounding with mirth and all fenfual pleafures. Virgil admits merely chatte and innocent enjoyments, and in this refpeét he has copied. Homer.
ELYTROCELE, (from ervlpov, the vagina, and xndny. a tumour,) in Surgery, a hernia in the vagina.
ELYTROID, in Anatomy, from evr, a”fbeath, and £4005 pan is aname applied to one of the coverings of the tefticle. See Generation, Organs of.
ELYTRON, properly a covering of any fort, and for any fubftance. Hippocrates has appropriated the word to fignify the membranes which involve the {pinal marrow.
ELZEVIRS, in Biography, celebrated printers at Am- fterdam and Leyden, lay claim toa fhort notice in this work, on account of the many valuable books which were printed at their preffes, and of the perfeétion to which they carried their art at a comparatively early period.: The firlt of the family was Lewis, who was diftinruithed for his editions from the year 1595. - He was fucceeded by Bonaventure, Abra- ham, and Daniel, of whom the lat died about the year 1680. The fmall types of thefe famous printers have a clearnefs and elegance which have rarely been equalled. Virgil, Terence, aud the Greek Teftament, printed in 1633, diftinguifhed by charaGters in red ink, are reckoned malter-pieces; and the beft of their claffics fill maintain a high value. Moreri.
ELZT, or Evra, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the country of Lower Saxony, and bifhopric of Hilde- fheim on the Saale; g miles S.W. of Hildefheim.
EM, or Empak, ariver of Ruffia, in the government of Riga or Livonia, which iffues from the lake Wyrtz, and falls into the Peipus.
EMANATION, formed of the Latine, out of, and manare, to flow or ftream, the a& of flowing, or proceed- ing, from fome fource or origin. Such is the emanation of light from the fun; or that of effluvia from odorous, &c. bodies; of wifdom from God, &c.
The principle of emanation was adopted from the moft remote times by the oriental philofophers, and by means of emanation from an eternal fountain of being, they endea- voured to explain the nature and origin of things. Zoro- after, at an early period, maintained this fyftem, alleging, that various orders of fpiritual beings, gods or damons, have proceeded from the deity, which are more or lefs per- fect, as they are ata greater or lefs diftance, in the courfe: of emanation, from the eternal fountain of intelligence ;: among which, the human foulis a particle of divine light which will return to its fource, and partake of its immorta- lity ;, and matteris the laft or molt diftant emanation from:
the:
EMA
the firft fource of being, which, on account of its diftance from the fountain of light, hecomes opake and Inert, and whillt it remains in this ftate is the caufe of evil but, being pradually refined, it will at length return to the fountain ewhence it flowed. This doétrine of emanation afterwards produced many fanciful opinions in theology. It was adopted by the ancient Indians, and taught under various modifications by the Brachmans. The fame fy {tem was like- wife received among the Egyptians, taught by Orpheus and Pythagoras, and communicated to the Greeks either from Egypt or from the Eaft. Whereverit originated, it was taught for many fucceflive ages in the more civilized regions of Afiaand Africa, and both before and after the commence. ment of the Chriftian era, it gradually fpread through the Alexandrian, Jewith, and Chriftian fchools. It wasa diftin- guifhing tenet of theJewith Cabbala, of Simon Magus, and of the Gnoftics and modern Platonifts. This fyftem, as it was taught by the oriental, Alexandrian, and Cabbaliftic philofo- phers, comprehended the following tenets. All things are de- rived, by emanation, fromone principle; which principle is God. From him a fubftantial power immediately proceeds, which is the image of God, and the fource of all fubfequent emanations. This fecond principle fends forth, by the energy of emanation, other natures, which are more or lefs perfect, according to their different degrees of diftance, in the {cale of emanation, from the firft fource of exiftence, and which conttitute different worlds, or orders of being, all united to the eternal power from which they proceed. Matter is nothing more than the moft remote effet of the emanative energy of the Deity. The material world receives its form from the immediate agency of powers far beneath the firit fource of being, and is the neceflary effet of the imper- feétions of matter. Human fouls are diftant emanations from Deity ; and, after they are liberated from their mate- rial vehicles, will return, through various ages of purifi- eation, to the fountain whence they firlt proceeded. Nothing can be more fanciful than the numerous fictions which are blended in this fyftem, and which have been grafted upon it by enthufiatts of different defcriptions, both philofophi- cal and theological ; infomuch that it has been the foul of enthufiafm and fanaticifm. (See THrosornists.) Some of the modern EcleGtic philofophers attempted to unite the atomic and emanative fy{tems; and Jordano Bruno, in par- ticular, founded his dogirine on the ancient fyftem of ema- nation. See Bruno.
Emanation is alfo ufed for the thing that proceeds, as well as the a&t of proceeding. The power given a judge is an emanation from the regal power; the reafonable foul is an emanation from the divinity.
Emanation is alfo ufed among the fchoolmen, for the production of a leffer thing, in order tothe production of a greater, by virtue of fome natural connection, or depend- ence between them.
Hence that is called an emanative caufe (in contradiftine- tion to an efficient caufe) which produces an effect by its mere prefence, without the intervention of any action; as a rofe doth a fmell, &c. Others, and with good reafon, deny that there is any fuch thing as an emanative caufe, to
roduce an effe& without any aétion. See Cause.
EMANCIPATION, formed from the Latin ex, of, and mancipium, a flave, in the Roman Law, was the a& of fetting a fon free from the power and fubjeGtion of his father.
Emancipation differs from manumiffion, as the latter was the aét of a matter in favour of a flave, the former that of a father in favour of his fon.
The effet of emancipation was, that the goods, and
EMA
moveable effete, which the fon thould thenceforth aequiie, - fhould be his fole.property, and not the property of bis fa« ther, as they were before emancipation. Befides, eman- cipation put the fon in a capacity of managing his owa affairs, and of marrying without his father’s “confent, though a minor, or pupil, and ander twenty-five years of age. : erThere wete two kinds of emancipation; ¢he ome tacit, which was by the fon’s being promoted to fume dignity, or by his coming of age, or by marriage; in all which cafes, the fon became his own matter of courfe. :
The other expre/s, where the father.declared before the judge, that he emancipated his fon. This was not per- formed without fome formality: the father was firft to fell his fon imagfnarily to another man, whom the lawyers call pater fiduciarius, father ia trufl; of whom being bought back again by the natural father, he manumitted, or {et him free, by a declaration before the judge. “This imagi- nary fale was called mancipatio; and the manumiffion con- fequent thereon, emancipatio. .
Emancipation obtained in France, chiefly with tegard to minors, or pupils, who were hereby fet at liberty to ma- nage their effects, without the advice, or dire€tion, of their fathers or tutors. It muft be obferved, however, that emancipation only extended to the felling of moveables, and letting of leafes, &c. of immoveables; not to the felling or mortgaging of immoveables; which were only done with the confent of a curator, ordinarily a perfon appointed, when emancipated,
Formerly emancipation was performed im the ordin courts of juftice, when defired by the child; but if he were a minor, the king’s letter was alfo required. Though there were other ways of emancipation, as by marriage 3 arriving at the age of twenty years; and in fome provinces by the death of the mother, becaufe the children were there under tne power of the father and mother conjointly ; fo that the death of either of them emancipated the child.
Emancipation by marriage, in France, gave a power of marrying again, without the father’s confent though under age; but among the Romans, Cujas tells us, a widow, under twenty-five years of age, though emancipated by her former marriage, returned into the power of the father, and might not marry a fecond time, without his-confent.
Du-Cange obferves, that the word emancipation was alfo ufed in the monatteries, in {peaking of monks promoted to any dignity, or removed from under the power of their fuperiors ; as alfo in {peaking of monafteries, chapels, &c. themfelves, when exempted by the pope; from the jurf- dition of the ordinary.
EMANUEL, in Ziography, king of Portugal, fon of the infant Don Ferdinand, duke of Vifco, fucceeded his coulin John II. in 1495. He was thea in his twenty-fixth year, and highly efteemed for the excellent qualities of his mind. He began his reign by reitoring the nobility to that confequence in the itate of which it had been the policy of his predeceffor to deprive them. He ihewed an inclination to favour the Jews, who had been enflaved in the former’ reign; but by the violence of his advifers, he did not dare to: follow the bent of his own mind, and demanded of thefe unhappy people, as the terms of their liberty, that they fhould initantly profefs themfelves Chriitians, in name, though a period of twenty years fhould be allowed them for their converfion. Mott of them complied with the. re- quired condition; but others, and thofe not a few, volunta-’ rily put an end to their lives, rather than fubmit to a dere-- liétion of principle. - Some of them were fo indignant at the requifition that they firlt murdered their own children, and.
then’
EMA
then committed the rafh deed upon themfelves; thinking death many form better than an abandonment of the re- ligion of their fathers. In 1496 he married Donna Ifa- bella, daughter of Ferdinand and Jfabella of Spain, who died the next year, having firft given him a fon and heir. This was the period in which the new paflage to the Indies was difcovered by Vafco de Gama, a circumftance which proved the fource of great riches to Portugal., and contri- buted to fix the epithet of fortunate upon this prince. In 1499 he married the younger filter of his late wife; and in t5o1, wader his aufpices, the Brazils were difcovered, which have proved a more latting benefit to Portugal than her In- dian pofeffions, and which has at length become an afylum to the exilting monarch, driven by Bonaparte from his Eu- ropean poflefiions. JEmanuel, in gratitude for the import- ant difcoveries made in his reign, founded the famous mo- naftery of Bethlehem, near Lifbon. He now adopted the plan of making conquefts in Africa, in which he was not very fuccefsful, but by the talents of Albuquerque he formed a very ufeful alliance with the king of Congo. Although profperous in a high degree, he met with mortifications fuf- ficient to lead him to declare his purpofe of refigning his crown into the hands of his fon. The eagernefs which the young man fhewed for power, and the marked attention which the courtiers paid him, caufed the monarch to change his purpofe. He died in 1521, in the 53d year of his age, at a time when he was regarded as one of the moft powerful and fpleudid princes in Europe. Emanuel, when religion was out of the queftion, was capable of liberal and gene- rous conduct. | He treated with great favour Don George, natural fon of the late king, for whom his father had en- deavoured to procure the fucceffion to the crown; and he re(tored to their titles and eftates the Braganza family, who had fuffered attainder and confifcation in the late reign. In the hiftory of his country, Emanuel ftands very high for piety, humanity, munificence, and thofe other good quali- lities that do honour to an enlightened fovereign. Univer. Hit.
Emanuex-Puirisert, duke of Savoy, fon of duke Charles II1,, was born in 1528, and though deflined for the church, yet by the early death of two elder brothers, he was mp fe up as heir to the fovereignty. He vifited the court of the emperor Charles V., by whom he was ereated knight of the Golden Fleece. He accompanied Philip Ii. into England, and was afterwards entrufted by him with the command of his armies. He was general at the fiege of Metz, and at the battle of St. Quintin, in 1557, -ia which the French fultained a fignal defeat. He married Margaret, daughter of Francis I. of France, and by that alliance regained all the dominions which his father had loft. At the perfuafion of fome bigots he attempted the extir- pation of the Vaudois, proteftants of Savoy, but was de- feated in his projects, and by the influence of the duchefs, who was well difpofed towards the reformation, he wil- lingly allowed them the exercife of their religion. He died refpeéted and beloved in 1580, after a reign of 27 years. Univer. Hitt. Moreri.
EMARGINATUM Foutum, in Botany. (See ht The term applies only to the extremity or apex of a leaf, and exprefles a notch in that part, apparently caufed by a greater tightnefs or contraétion in the nerve, than in the fofter more dilatable parts adjacent, which are therefore ex- tended beyond it. ‘The petals of flowers, however, are very often emarginate in their original conformation, as in many {pecies of Chickweed or Sandwort.
EMASCULATION, the psinyd taking from a male
FMB
thofe parts which are charaéteriftic of his fex. See Case TRATION.
EMAUX de PEfcu, in Heraldry, the metals and colours of a fhield, or feutcheon.
EMBA, or Yemba, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which takes its rife in the fouthernmoft part of the Ural mountains, and conttitutes the border between the Ufimfkoi government and the country of the Kirchiftzi, though the forts are much more to the welt, namely, on the river Ural. The Emba takes up only one river of note, the Sagifs, has a {trong current, but is at the fame time very fhallow. It is the moft eafterly of all the rivers that fallinto the Cafpian,
EMBABE,, a village of Egypt, oppofite to Boulac, near Cairo, upon the weft bank of the Nile, famous for the ex. cellent quality of its butter, and fora variety of lupins, which grow in its vicinity, and called embaben. Thefe are fold ready dreffed in the ftreets and markets, and they fup- ply Lower Egypt. Their general appellation in the coun- try is “ termefs.”” The Chriftians of the Eaft eat lupins as a ftimulus for drinking brandy. Flour is made of them, which is ufed for cleaning the hands and foftening the fkin. The ftalk, reduced to afhes, is preferred to other charcoal ia the compofition of gun-powder.
EMBALMING, theopening ofa dead body, taking out the inteftines, and filling their place with odoriferous and deficcative drugs and f{pices, to prevent its putrefying.
The word is formed from éa/m, which was a principal ingredient in the embalmings of the ancient Egyptians.
Dr. Grew, in his Mufeum Regalis Societatis, is of opi- nion, that the Egyptians boiled their bodies in a large caul- dron, with a certain kind of liquid balfam. His reafon is, that in the mummies preferved in the colleétion of the Royal Society, the balm has penetrated not only the flefhy and foft paits, but even the very bones; fo that they are all as black as if they had been burnt.
The Peruvians had an effectual method of preferving the bodies of their incas, or kings, embalmed.
The mode of embalming dead bodies among the Egyp- tians was as follows; when a man died, his body was car- ried to the artificers, whofe trade it was to make coffins; they took the meafure of the body, and made a coffin for it, proportioned to its ftature, the dead perfon’s quality, and the price that people were willing to give. The upper part of the coffin reprefented the perfon who was to be fhut up in it, whether man or woman. If it was a man of con- dition, this was diftinguifhed by the figure which was re- prefented on the cover of the coffin; there were generally added paintings and embellifhments, fuitable to the quality of the perfon. Vide Caffian Collat. 15. cap. 3. & Cicero, Tufc. Queft, lib. i. Herodot, lib. ii. cap.86. Diodor. lib. ii, cap. 5. When the body was brought home again, they agreed with the embalmers at what rate particularly they would have it embalmed, for the prices were different; the higheft was a talent of filver, eftimated at about 258/. 6s. 8d. or, as others fay, about 300/.; twenty mine was a moderate one, and the lowetft price was a very fmall fum. They im- mediately fent for a defigner, who marked the body, as it lay extended, at the place where it fhould be opened, on the left fide, and the length of the incifion, A diffeGtor, with avery fharp Ethiopian ftone, made the incifion, and hurried away as faft as he could, becaufe the relations of the perfon deceafed, who were prefent, took up ftones, and purfued him as a wicked wretch, with an intention to ftone him.
This operation being finifhed, the embalmers, who were looked upon as facred perfons, entered to perform oe
office,
EMBALMING.
office. They drew all the brains of the dead perfon through his noftrils, with a hooked piece of iron, pro- vided particularly for this pur ofe, and filled the fkull with aftringent drugs; they likewife drew all the bowels, except the heart and kidneys, through the aperture which they had made in the fide. The inteftines were wafhed in wine from the palm-tree, and in other ftrong and binding drugs. The whole body was anointed with oil of cedar, after hav- ing been filled with myrrh, cinnamon, and other {pices, for about thirty days, fo that it was preferved entire, not only without putrefaction, but had a good {cent with it. Asyurrios py: TH EVTEQH eEcdovees TAPIXEVTW AUTSGe And the Per- fians, as the fame author, Sextus Efppiricus, obferves, were ufled wurgw ragixever. Sext. Empir. Pyrrhon. Hypoth. lib. ii. cap. 24.
Bodies thus preferved are called mummies, from the Ara- bic word mam, which fignifes wax, this being an ingre- dient in the preparation, ,
After this the body was put into falt for about forty days ; wherefore when Mofes fays, that forty days were employed in embalming Jacob, we are to underftand him as meaning the forty days of his continuing in the falt of nitre, without including the thirty days paft in performing the other ceremonies above-meutioned, fo that, in the whole, they mourned feventy days in Egypt, as Mofes likewife obferves.
Afterwards the body was taken out of the falt, wafhed, wrapt up in linen fwaddling-bands, dipped in myrrh, and rubbed with a certain gum, which the Egyptians ufed in- ftead of glue. Then the body was reftored to the rela- tions, who put it ina coffin, and kept it in their houfes, or in tombs made particularly for this purpofe. There are fome found, at this day, in Egypt, in chambers, or fubterra- neous vaults, which fully juitify the truth of what is here faid.
They who were not rich enough to bear this expence, contented themfelves with infufing, by a fyringe, through the fundament, a certain liquor extracted from the cedar, and leaving it there, wrapt.up the body in falt of nitre. This oil preyed upon the inteftines, fo that when they took it out, the inteftines came along with it dried, and not in the leaft putrefied. The body being inclofed in nitre, grew dry, and nothing remained befides the fkin glued upon the bones. They who were too poor to be at any confider- able expence, did no more than cleanfe the infide, by fy- ringing a liquor into it; this done, they put the body, without farther ceremony, into nitre for feventy days, in order to dry it. Calmet, Diéion. Bibl. _Pococke’s De- fcription of the Eaft, vol. i. p. 230, &c.
The prefent method of embalming in Egypt differs very much from the ancient. Mallet informs us, that it is now the cuftom to wath the body feveral times in rofe-water ; then to perfume it with incenfe, aloes, and other odours, in great abundance ; the body is afterwards wrapped up in a winding-fheet, made partly of filk, and partly of cotton, moiftened probably with fome liquid perfume ; this is again covered with another cloth of unmixed cotton, to which is added one of the richeft fuits of clothes of the deceafed. Letter X.' p. 88.
The art of embalming, fays Sonnini, is now unknown to the Egyptians.. As foon as a perfon is dead, they prefs the different parts of the body, in order to make it difcharge all its impurities; they repeatedly wah it, fhave it, pluck out all the hair, and ftop all the apertures clofely with cot- ton; they then pour upon them odoriferous waters, and the perfumes of Arabia penetrate into all their pores. The in-
animate remains are then committed to the earth; and the fpot where the head of the deceafed lies, they pins {mall ftone pillar, crowned with a turban. Every Friday they refort to the foot of this fepulchral monument, and
renew their mournful adicus.
Dr. Ward, in his Differtations on this fubje@, ff fee that the Jewifh method of embalming was very different from the Egyptian, and that this appears from y Here pal. fages in the New Teftament. Both, as he conceives, fwathed up their dead; but inftead of the Egyptian em- bowelling, he fuppofes the Jews contented chentaless with an external undion ; and that inftead of myrrh and caffia, they ufed myrrh and aloes. T'o this account he alfo adds the fuppofition, that St. John might mention the circum- fiance of our Lorsd’s embalming, in order the better to ob- viate the falfe report which then prevailed among the Jews, that the body of our Lord had been ftolen away in the night by his difciples; for the linen, he fuppofes, could not have been taken from the body and head, in the manner in which it was found in the fepulchre, on account of its clinging fo faft from the vifcous nature of thefe drugs, if they had been fo foolifh as to attempt it. It is certain that the modern Egyptian mode of embalming, if it may be fo called, differs very much from the ancient; but it is not eafy to determine how far the Jewifh method, in the time of our Lord, differed from that of the Egyptians. It does not appear indeed to be certain, that the Jews were not ac- cuftomed to embowel their dead in embalming. As all other nations feem to have embalmed exaétly according to the Egyptian manner, the fame caufes that induced them to do fo, probably occafioned the Jews not to vary from them in this refpeét. It does not, however, follow from hence, that our Lord was embowelled, though St. John fays (ch. xix. 40.), that he was buried with fpices, ‘ as the manner of the Jews was to bury ;” for thele words do not neceffarily fignify, that all was done that was wont to be done in thofe cafes among the Jews. Indeed, the con- trary appears to have been the faét, from the farther pre- parations made by the women, who probably were not acquainted with what had been done, though Dr. Ward fuppofes the contrary; fince St. Luke exprefsly tells us ~ Xxiii. 55.), that “‘ the women, which came with him rom Galilee, followed after, and beheld the fepulchre, and how his body. was laid.”? Admitting this ftatement, Ward’s thought concerning the difficulty of taking off the bandages, befmeared with very glutinous drugs, muit ap- pear to be unfounded; for in that cafe, the women could have done nothing more as to the embalming of him. Be- fides, aloes and myrrh do not appear to poffefs that very glutinous quality. which Dr. Ward afcribes to them; and it is more reafonable to fuppofe that St. John mentions this circumftance, concerning which the other evangelifts are filent, becaufe he-publifhed his hiftory for the ufe of perfons lefs acquainted with the cuftoms of the Eaft, than thofe for whofe infermation the others wrote. This reafon induced him to fay to thofe who were wont to durn their dead, that our Lord was buried with /pices, which was in general the Jewith method of difpofing of their dead; and thishe might very well do, though the fhortnefs of the time occafioned fome deviation from what they commonly praétifed. This fhortnefs of time prevented them alfo from fwathing him with that accuracy and length of bandage, which they would otherwife have ufed; in conformity to the cuftom obferved among the Egyptians, and probably alfo among the Jews: for we are informed, that the Egyptians have ufed above a thoufand ells of filletting about a body, befides what
EMB
what was wrapped about the head. Such, indeed, was the hurry of the difeiples, that our Lord’s head was fimply bound about with a napkin; a practice ufed by the Ma- hometans at this time. What was done by Jofeph aud Nicodemus with the mixture of myrrh and aloes, which they provided, doth not appear. Dr, Lardner fuppofes, they might have formed a bed of fpices. A modern Jew, cited by bifhop Kidder, obje&s to the hiftory of the New Teltament ; alleging that the quantity was fufficient for 200 dead bodies, that is, allowing half-a-pound for each body. But this quantity falls far fhort of that which mo- dern furgeow's ufe in embalming. It appears from what Jofephus (Antig. lib. 15.) fays of the funeral of Arifto- bulus, the lait of the high priefts of the family of the Mac- cabees, that the larger the quantity of {pices ufed in their interments, the greater honour was thought to be done to the dead; and therefore we may ealily account for the quantity brought by Nicodemus, though we may not be able to tell precifely how he difpofed of it. Might aot Jarge quantities of precious perfumes be itrewed, or de- figned to be ftrewed, about the body of our Lord? Har- mer’s Obf. vol. ii.
It is no wonder that we find human bodies preferved without corrupting for many ages, by means of {pices, and other ingredients, proper to refilt putrefation, applied with
the niceft care; but it is ftrange that there fhould be a fort —
of embalming performed by nature, in fome places, where bodies are preferved merely by the virtues of the foil in which they lie; yet this is evidently the cafe in fome in- ftances. We have, in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, an account of a man anda woman who were loft in the great f{nows on the moors of Flope, near the woodlands in Derby- fhire, on the r4th of January, 1674. Thefe perfons were not found till the 3d of the May following, at which time they {melt fo ftrong, that the coroner prudently ordered them to be buried on the fpot. 'Thefe bodies lay buried in the peat-mofs 28 years before they were looked at again ; when fome people of the country, who had heard of the ftrange virtues of the foil thereabouts in preferving dead bodies, opened the ground, and fourid them no way altered, the colour of the fkin being fair and natural, and the flefh as foft as that of perfons newly dead. Phil. Tranf. N° 434,
a lS i After this the place was remarked where they lay, and they were fhewn for a fight for 20 years, though they were much changed by having been fo often uncovered in that time.
EMBANKMENT, in Rural Economy, a large bodys mound, or bank of earth, conftructed and thrown up in different ways, according to circumftances, with the view of guarding, protecting, and defending lands on the borders of the fea, rivers, and lakes, from being inundated and in- jured by them.
~ They are of different kinds and forms, according to the nature of the fituations and the materials of which they are conftituted. In embanking againft the fea and large rivers, where the flopes next them are naturally gentle and eafy, they are moftly of the earthy defeription, being well put together, and covered on the furface with turf cut from the tough fward of the land in the neighbourhood; but, in cafes where the banks, borders, and fhores, are more fleep and bold, they are ufually of a more hard and folid nature : being often made with ftone, brick, gravel, fand, hells, and other fimilar fubftances, laid clofely in fome fort of te- nacious material, fuch as clay, mortar, and other matters of the fame quality. Wood is likewife, in fome inftances, loyed in their conftruétion, ow XIIL
EMB
In works of this fort, very much’ depends upon the form in which they are cgnttruéted, and the nature and manages ment of the materials which are made ufe of in the bufinefs. In refpeét to the firft, it may be remarked, that banks of thefe kinds are commonly conftruéted with too narrow bafes for the heights which are given them; from which circum- flance, the fides which are oppofed to the effects of the water become too fteep and upright ; confequently, in cafes of high tides or floods, they are utterly incapable of refitting their weight, which has equally a lateral and downright preffure. Befides this, there is another difadvantage ate tending this method of forming them, which is, that the floods, as well-as the tides, in ebbing and flowing, have a more coutinued aétion on one part than would be the cafe, if the flopes were more gentle and gradual ; confequently, they have a much greater tendency to break down and deftroy the fuperficial parts of the banks. With fome variations in the forms, mott of the embankments in this country are, however, made in this way. They may fucceed in fome particular inftances ; but in general it is found, that breaches are frequently taking plact inthem, from the effeéte of the fea or Hoods, which are not capable of being filled up or repaired, without confiderable difficulty and trouble; and which, if fuffered to continue even for a fhort {pace of time, endanger the whole embankment.
The common form of embankment is fhewn at fig. 15 Plate X. Agriculiure, and the improved form pointed out at fig. 2, in the fame plate.
The angles or flopes of thefe forts of works are made very different in different cafes; but that fhewn in the above figure feems in general well calculated for the purpofe of refiiting the impreffion of heavy tides, or the waters of floods. The greater breadth they have in proportion to their height, the more effeGtual they muft be in refifting the power of the waters which come upon them.
In regulating the heights of embankments, it is neceflary to afcertain the greateft depth of water at the higheft tides or floods; making the fummits of them about two feet higher than the points to which they rife at fuch times. - By fome, a lefs height than this above the higheft mark of the tides or floods has, however, been confidered fufficient 3 but it is always proper to be on the fafe fide, as the confe» quences of an overflow are very ferious.
In forming embankments with ftones, or other fimilar materials, which, as has» been feen, is eflential in bold fteep banks or fhores, it is neceflary that they be laid in proper materials, and be clofely jointed next the fea, or the rivers, fo as to be fully capable of refifting the entrance of water; as, unlefs this be the cafe, they will by no means be complete: for the water, infinuating itfelf between the openings, finks down among the ftones, foftens and loofeng the clayey or earthy matters underneath, by which portions of them are continually forced out and wafhed away ; hol. lows being formed in that way below, and the ftones nae turally finking down ; in confequence of which, the waters rufh into the cavities with confiderable impetuofity, and quickly difplace others, and the whole embankment is foon deftroyed. his very frequently takes place with the heads thrown acrofs rivers, and fuch paved or caufewayed banke as are formed with the view of protecting and preferving thofe bold and open fhores, which are liable to be under- mined and carried away by the wafhing operation of the waters which come againft them. In order to render the embankments perfeétly fecure in fuch cafes, they fhould be Jaid with good mortar, and be pointed with a ftrong ce» ment. A good coat of gravel, in fome cafes of this kind, is evea found far fuperior to rns with ftones.
In
EMBANKMENT.
In conftruéting embankments of the quay, or other fimilar kinds, a mortar formed from. powdered unburnt lime-ftone and coarfe fharp fand is employed ; the whole being pointed with puzzolana earth, by which they become as folid as rock, and fully refilt the effeG&s of water. The lime of particular forts of lime-ftone is found more proper for forming this fort of mortar cements thaa that of others ; thus, that found at Dorking in Surrey is fuppofed to con- ftitute the moft durable fub{tance of this kind of any in the agen: and has been employed in forming the new docks in the river, near London, And an’ excellent fort of lime-ftone for the fame purpofe has likewife been dif- covered near Worfley, in Lancafhire, which is there termed Sutton lime. i
It has been fuggefted by a late’writer, that an excellent mortar cement for this ufe, which hardens under water, may be compofed by having four parts of blue clay, fix of the black oxyd of manganefe, and nine of carbonate of lime, fubmitted to a white heat, and: then well incorporated with fixty parts of fand, and as much water as may be ne- ceflary to form it into a mortar.
It is invariably found, in examining the fhores of the fea,
and the banks of rivers, that fuch as have eafy and gently declining flopes from their beds to their borders or banks ; and thofe which are formed in a fteep upright manner, of rocky materials, fuch as are fhewn at figs. 3, and 4, are the leaft expofed to injury from the effects of their waters : the two former being the moft fecure, when fpread over or coated with good coverings of fand or gravel, or uni- formly turfed over quite down to the water-fide with the {ward of a tough old pafture. The ftrength and firmnefs of their banks are in proportion to the extent of the flope ; and their durability depends on that of their being made uniform on their furfaces, both in refpeét to hardnefs and {moothnefs: as, in the former cafe, from the great length of flope, the flows and decreafes of the waters act more momentarily on their different parts, and their greater weight renders their banks more firm ; while, in the latter -eafe, by the equality of their furfaces, the power of the waters is rendered the fame on one part as another, and no obftacles are left for the producing of eddies, or other means of forming holes or breaks in them.
In the latter, or thofe of the bold, upright, rocky kind of banks, their ftrength chiefly depends on the refiftance of the large quantity of materials by which they are backed, and not'on the manner in which they are difpofed, as in the former cafe; and their durability, on that of the uniform compactnefs of texture in the parts oppofed to the effects of the*waters : as, where thefe have fiflures in them, or are fofter in fome parts than others, the waters are liable to enter and break down the banks in time, according to the particular nature of the cafes. A ftriking example of this kind lately occurred in the Ifle of Wight.
It is, therefore, of importance that the modes and forms of embankment, which are thus naturally prefented, fhould be improved upon’ by art. It is evident, that if a cut was formed behind the embankment, asin jig. 5, at the letter x, the fhores or banks, though, in this cafe, as it were, detached from the land, would be found equally ftrong and capable of refifting the preffure of the waters, as in their original flate. Hence, if a mound or bank was formed, and placed out at the diftance of one, two, or three miles from the fhore or other embankment, within the bed of "the fea or other waters, as at y in the fame figure, it would be’ equally capable’of refiftingthem as in the former jaftance, and not more liable to ‘be broken down by their preflure than’ former ftation ; and would alfo defend
them as completely from the intermediate {pace of land, ag it did before from the narrow trench. Confequently, on this principle, vaft tracts of land may, in different parts of the kingdom, be obtained by judicious embankments, ~
Though the fhores of bold fteep coafts may not afford examples equally capable of pang followed with advante as the above, they neverthelefs fuggeft ufeful hints torte purpofe of defence, in cafes of bold, abrupt, broken fhores, con{tituted of earth, or of that material and rocky fub- {tances intermixed. It readily prefents itfelf to the mind, that the raifing a good perpendicular flone-wall againfl fuch banks, renders them nearly as ftrong and lafting as thofe formed by nature of fteep, folid, rocky bodies. This fort of walled bank is exhibited at fig.6. But though this method may be praétifed, in cafes of the above kind, with great advantage, it is not by any means applicable in gene- ral to rivers; as, with them, the water, during the periods of floods, ftands in need of room to fpread, which is the great ufe of giving their banks a floping form; while, in this way, by being confined, it would have the effeé&t of doing more injury than was the cafe before. Inftances may, however, happen in which it may be had recourfe to with propriety, in defending a part of the bank of a river, with. out giving it a floping dire&tion, or for proteéting oxe part of a bank at the rifk of that which is oppofite to it; but well-confiructed piers, in fuch cafes, are frequently more perfect, and conftantly attended with lefs expence. But inftead of thefe, art may fuggeft one that may anfwer ia fome refpeéts more perfectly ; as in place of bringing to- gether fuch a maf{s of earthy or other fubitances, as may be proper for conftructing fuch banks as are fhewn at jigs. 15 and 7, it may be more advantageous to have one formed, fuch as is fhewn at fig. 8, the fide of which next the water forms with the bafe an angle of about 45 degrees. This will be capable of bearing all the weight or preflure of water that can poflibly be brought uponit, equally well with that of fig. 1, except that the operation-of the tides would break the {uperficial part ofthe fide next the fea, unlefs pre- vented by coating it with fome durable fubftance, fuch as paving ftones, bricks, or other fimilar materials.
But various different ones may be invented between this and the firft natural kind, which differ only in the degree of inclination which they have towards the fet. that which flopes in the higheft degree, as fig. 1, having the furface covered over with fand or gravel; and that which has the leaft flope, as fig. 8, may be covered with pavement; the different intermediate flopes being prote¢ted by materials which have a quality between the two, fuch as coarfe gravel, chalk-ftones, brick, and fand, as fhewn in Sig 9« This embankment is wholly conftruéted of a fandy loam, being depofited upon a foil of the fame quality ; but as it would not, for fome time after being formed, be fufficiently impervious to water, a column of clay is carried upright in the middle, from the clayey fubftratum of the foil under- neath, as fhewn at xx in the feétion.
In cafes where the fhores are of a very fandy nature, it is frequently neceflary to form the embankments wholly of a fort of wicker-work. In fuch circumftances, three or four rows of pailing may be put down, of different heights; and the vacant {paces between them be well filled, by forcing in furze, brufh-wood, or even ftraw, as reprefented at Sigs 10+ Thefe fubftances, by detaining the mud_and fand, as the tide paffes through them, or during high floods, foon form a fort of embankment, fuch as that fhewn in the above re- prefentation. It fhould afterwards be covered with fome
lant, which is capable of binding and giving it folidi uch as the elymus arenarius. This embankment weal /) continue,
rr ae,
ee
EMBANKMENT.
continue, during extraordinary tides, to retain ftill larger quantities of the fandy materials, until ultimately raifed higher than they could reach, by which a fafe bauk would be formed, It is fuggeited by Mr. Loudon, in his ufeful « Treatife on, forming Country Refidences,”’ from which many_of the above hints have been drawn, that from twenty to thirty thoufand acres of land might be gained in this way, in a very few years, in different parts of the rivers Severn, Humber, Frith, &c.
In all cafes of embankment, however they may be formed, tunnels and Juices of a proper kind, with valves to- wards the fea or rivers, mult be occationally placed, ac- cording to cireumftances, fo as to permit the water that may be colleéted within to pafs away, and that of the fea or rivers to flow up, with different intentions in the view of improyinge the land. the utility of projecting points is very confiderable, in different cafes, on the fea-coaits and rivers, in defending the bays and inlets of the former, as well as guarding the banks of the latter, by diverting their ftreams or currents to the oppofite fides. Hence arifes the formation of piers, which become highly beneficial in defending embankments, as well as the borders of rivers and brooks. In the firft of thefe cafes, they may. generally be conitituted and coated over with the fame fort of material as that of which the embank- ment is formed ; while, in the latter, they fhould be formed of fome fort of ftony matter, being conftruéted in fuch a way as to decreafe in every direction as they advance out- wards, as reprefented in jig. II. they are, however, capable of being contftituted of brufh- wood, fecured by means of flakes, often with more perfe& fuccefs. And it frequently happens that a fimple rude wicker-work fence, of not more than three or four yards in length, may be fully fufficient for the purpofe. Embank- ments formed of ftone, unlefs conftructed in the manner re- prefented at the above figure, are apt to caule eddies below them; while thofe formed of brufh-wood cannot have this effect.
It is obvious that confiderable attention muft be required in deciding the moft proper fituations for conftruéting thefe forts of projeGtions in, and the diftances to which they fhould extend into the rivers: as a too extended projection may be highly dangerous to the oppofite bank, and of courfe do harm inftead of being beneficial ; while not carry~ ing them out fufficiently may prevent the effect which is wanted. In cafes where piers are to be formed of ftone, as in rivers where the bottoms are of a rocky nature, the plan reprefented at fig. 11. is probably the moft proper, as it will fearcely caufe any eddy, and be nearly equally mild with that of wicker-work in the effeét which it produces. Different works of thefe feveral kinds have been conftru@ed in the northern parts of the ifland with much fuccefs.
Proper Maseriats far Embankments.—T here cannot be any doubt, but that different forts of materials may be made ufe of in different fituations and kinds of works of this nature, with more advantage than others, both in fo far as duration and expence are concerned, ;
Thole fteep upright embankments which are conftruéted with the view of prote¢ting bold fhores, or coafts, and the banks of particular rivers, may probably be beft formed of good bri tk, rubble, or afhler work in the manner of a wall, as feen at fig. 6. in the plate, the materials being laid in the ftrongeft fort of mortar that can be made, But where this is not the cafe, they may be built inthe common way, and pointed with puzzolana earth, or what is termed the Rida cement, prepared by Meflrs. Parker and Co, London,
The aterent kinds of floped embankments may be formed
In each of thefe cafes,
either with common earthy materials, clay, mud, or a mixture of thefe feveral different fub‘tances: and any other matters which are capable of uniting into a folid, firm, com: pact mafs, may be had recourfe to for the fame purpofe. Where the fides next the fea or other waters farm angles of from twenty to thirty or even thirty-five degrees, with their bafes, they may be coated with fand, the fhells from the fea, or coarfe gravel from the borders of the fhores. And ftones,
‘broken down to uniform fizes of a few pounds in weight,
may be employed ina fimilar manner. But where none of thefe fubftances are capable of being procured in fufficient abundance, a method praétiled in Holland, of covering them with fuch perifhable materials as mats, reeds, ftraw, bark, and others of the fame nature, may be had recourfe to; but thefe are obvioufly difadvantageous, as requiring very fre- quent renewal. ‘They might likewife be proteGied by a low fence of brufh-wood, fixed in an ereét manner all along at the bottom of the bank, of an equal height, as tending to break off the violence of the waves. Another method might alfo beemployed, which is, that of covering the whole front of the bank with bruth-wood, either made into bundles or in the manner of wicker-work, or fixed down ina neat man- ner by means of long poles and ftrong hooked ftakes. And further, they may be laid in the form of caufeway with ftones in mots, or covered with wicker-work applied upon the moffy material when fpread out over the bank. And there are {till many other modes which may be adopted under particular circumitances.
In all cafes where the fides and flopes towards the fea con- ftitute angles of from thirty-five to forty-five degrees, with their bafes, as in fg. 8, recourfe may be had to ftones of the flag kind as coverings, which fhould be jointed with cement mortars formed in fome of the manners mentioned above. And where thefe forts of flones cannot be provided, if clay can be found, proper kinds of bricks may be made, and ufed in the fame way as the ftones. But where the flopes or inclined planes are from forty to forty-five degrees, itis frequently more cheap and economical to have them covered with itones of about fix oreight pounds in weight, applied to the thicknefs of a foot and a half or nearly two feet ; or thefe may be ufed on a bed of common mofs of three inches, or of peat-mofs of the flow kind, of fix inches in thicknefs, aoe upon the banks, only to the thicknefs of fix or eight inches. Stones of thefe kinds may likewife be formed into a fort of caufeway, or be laid in {trong clay, and their furtaces be jointed with lime ora {trong cement mortar, which has the property of quickly hardening, and of enduring the operation of the air and tides, which alternately a€t upou it.
There may likewife be cafes in which it may be the moft advantageous practice to have the fides next the fea or rivers protected by coverings of wood only, in which cafes, larch may be the moft proper, or fuch others asare durable, having their furfaces covered over with pitch and fome fort of fharp fand. And old fail cloth, or oil cloth pitched and coated over with fand in the fame manner; or even thin plates of metals have been fuggefted as ufeful in particular inftances,
Lxpence of forming Embankments—This mutt obrioufly be very different in different fituations and circumfances, ac- cording to materials and the price of labour, but though in general pretty confiderable, it is feldom fo high as is coms monly fuppofed. It is probable that’in cheap diftriéts, and where the materials are plentiful, the expence of forming an earth bank covered with fand or gravel, fuch as that thewn at fig. 1, could not be lefs than from four-pence or fix-pencey to ten-pence or a fhilling the cubic yard. And fuch as have more fteep and bold flopes, as . thirty-five to forty-de.
2 Ereesy
EMBANKMENT.
grees, and are formed with pavement on the furfaces, can- not colt lefs than from nine-pence to one fhilling and fix- pence the cubic yard. One made on the plan of that fhewn at fig. 6. could not be conttructed for lefs than from twelve or fifteen tothirty pounds for every thirty-two yards. And one conftituted of brufh-wood, in the fame metkod, for foft ground which will not admit of a wall, would not be lower than from fix-pence or eight-pence to fix or feven fhillings for each foot forward ina lineal manner. In many fituations the expences would, however, inall forts of em- bankments, ftand a great deal higher than thefe.
In fome diftriéts embankments are formed by the rod and the floor, the former being from four to five pounds, and the latter about four fhillings and fix-pence, the work- men finding all forts of neceffary things for the bufinefs.
Extent of Land capable of being gained by Embankments.— Ttis evident, that great quantities of land might in many fituations be obtained from the fea and large rivers by the forming of properembankments. Some notion of this may indeed be formed by acareful examination of fuch lands, as lie along their fhores and banks, by afcertaining the dif- tances to which the waters ebb out at common tides, as it is found by experience, that one half of the extent of land, thus uncovered in any particular fituation, may at leaft be gained; hence throughout the whole kingdom it could hardly be eflimated at a lefs quantity than from two to three millions of acres, butit is probably much more than even the laft quantity, if it were capable of being afcertained with any degree of accuracy or corretnefs.
Importance of Embankments —When the extent and value of the lands which are capable of being gained by thefe means are fully confidered, there can be no doubt of their being of the greateft confequence to the interefts of the country. It has been wellremarked by a late writer on this fubject, that there are numerous places in the kingdom where vaft improvements may be effeCted by the judicious application of thefe means. Vait tracts of land of the beft kind may not only be gained from the fea, but likewife from the large rivers and lakes, befides the beneficial confe-
uences which mult neceffarily arife from the prevention of uch rivers from overflowing their banks, and injuring the level grounds in their vicinity by fuch inundations. In fome cafes, itis fuppofed, that by raifing a bank of only three or four feet in height, at very {mall expence, fome thoufands efacres might be prevented from being overflown, the crops from being carried away, and much other mifchief from being produced. In other inftances the forming of very trifling banks might be the means of obtaining much extent of country, which in its prefent ftate is of but very little value ; yet fo indifferent are people in general about im- provements of this defcription, that though immenfe tracts are year after year overflown, and the moft dreadful devaita- tions committed, they have recourfe to no means of pre- vention ; nay, even though the fea itfelf, fays the writer, as if to roufe them from their inaétion, prefents to their view twice every four and twenty hours large traéts that might by proper means be made of very great value, yet thefe re- peated invitations are difregarded, and no attempts are made to poffefs what might, in many cafes, be fo eafily and fo - advantageoufly acquired. This is confidered altogether as extraordinary and unaccountable, while the acquifition of diftant poffeffions is conceived by them of fuch great im- portance, as there can be no doubt but that the addition of portions of ground at home, when brought into proper cultivation, is of far greater national advantage than double the quantities gained in other diftant countries. The acquifition of additional territory at home fhould,
therefore, be more attended, to, and have mere expence bee ftowed upon it than has hitherto been the cafe. In partic cular fituations, indeed, a few active and enterprifing per- fons have taken advantage of the oppo putiee which have been prefented ; as in the counties of York, Lincoln, Cam- bridge, and others, many hundred thoufands of acres have been gained by embankments. In Norfolk, too, a confider= able extent of land has been gained in this way. Inthe neighbourhood of Chefter, the river Dee company have likewife gained feveral thoufands of acres from the fea, whiclr have been fince divided into different beautiful farms,. the whole of which pay in rent more than two thoufand pounds per annum. Andin Holland the whole country has, ina great degree, been obtained by thefe means.
It is fated by Mr. Beatfon, in the fecond volume of Com- munications to the Board of Agriculture, that large fums have been expended in fome places by individuals, with z view of guarding againft inundations; but owing to the embankments they have made being injudicioufly placed, and as badly conftruéted, the defired effect has not always been produced, particularly in the northern parts of Chehhire, on the banks of the river Merfey, where works of this kind have been thrown up at a great expence, which, from the manner of theirbeing placed, may, in fome cafes, by confin- ing the courfe of the river, do more harm than good. By