The Geographical Journal.
No. APRIL, 1908.
MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION THE HIMALAYA
probably from the snowy ranges Garhwal that the words and Himalaya take their origin, for this region which connected with the most ancient traditions the Indo-Aryan race. the earliest annals Hinduism learn that these mountains have been regarded the greatest sanctity, and even the present time more merit obtained the long and toilsome journey into the heart this Abode Snow” than any other the thousands places pilgrimage scattered through the length and breadth India, with the possible exception the sacred sites just across the border Hundes. According the Mahabharata, was Bageswar, the Kumaon foothills, that Siva was married the Mountain- born” daughter Himachal. her its highest summit takes the name Nanda Devi, while the triple peak Trisul the Siva himself. Buddha’s time formed part the great kingdom Kosala, which was afterwards absorbed into Asoka’s empire, written the Stone” Kalsi Lower Garhwal, the most perfect example extant that emperor’s rock-cut edicts. The pious records visit its shrines. thousand years ago Sankarachariya suppressed Buddhism and restored the older manical religion, placing priests his own Namburi clan from distant Malabar Kedarnath and the present day the these two shrines are drawn from the same locality. Almost every natural feature the country connected with some event ancient
Read the Royal 27, 1908. Map, 472.
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362 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
mythical times. Thus, apart from other reasons geographical position, not surprising find that the great peaks are known distinctive and widely recognized names ancient origin, condition things means universal other mountain regions. This region, too, far more “alpine” character than the icy solitudes the Karakoram and Baltistan, and contains rich and interesting flora and fauna.
The snowy ranges British containing some forty trian- gulated peaks over 20,000 feet, are roughly divisible into three groups. The first, representing axis elevation considerably the south the present water-parting, centres round the twin peaks Nanda Devi, 25,660 and 24,379 feet—strictly speaking, the highest mountain within the British Empire. This group most complicated and irregular structure, but may briefly described being bounded the west and north-west the valleys Alaknanda and Dhaoli rivers; the north the valley the Girthi and the Milam peaks the east the Milam valley and the south the Pindar. Thus will seen that considerable portions the eastern and southern slopes lie Kumaon. The second group, prolongation the same axis elevation, fills the angle formed the valleys the Alaknanda and the Dhaoli. Its highest peak, Kamet, 25,450 feet, situated mile the south the Tibetan frontier, which country its northern slopes lie, the main axis elevation thus articulating with the present water-parting, though must not forgotten that the streams rising from the Tibetan slopes flow into the Sutlej, and thus eventually reach India. that corner British territory the east the Kamet group, and the north the Nanda Devi group, lies lofty but far less snowy area, whose physical and geological character approximates that the adjacent portions Hundes. The third group really belongs Tehri-Garhwal, and centres the peaks around Gangotri; but the glaciers its eastern slopes discharge their waters into the valley the Alaknanda. latter have never, far can ascertain, been examined Europeans, though the glaciers Gangotri are fairly well known.
These steep-sided river valleys supply number natural routes means which relatively easy penetrate into and beyond the barrier the snows, thus Garhwal has for many years been annually visited British sportsmen, addition the thousands from every part India who have for generations performed the sacred pilgrimage, and the Bhotias who trade over into the Tibetan territory Hundes. Yet such the inaccessibility some the lateral gorges, that many places the glacier regions still remain untouched. The sportsman has object climbing above the snow-line, and only very exceptional cases that the native can induced doso. Thus when they came the snow-line, the officers the Survey India had
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THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL.
363
problem the greatest difficulty before them, which was further complicated climatic conditions limiting their season few months the outside. have nothing but admiration for their work, and especially for that Mr. Ryall, Assistant-Superintendent G.T.S., who carried out the Kumaon-Garhwal survey during the years 1874 1877. not surprising that there are errors the delineation the glacier regions, but surprising that men who had training what mountaineers call snow-craft should have gone where they have gone, made such good maps those parts the country which neither they nor the natives could gain personal access. And evident that they did not shirk difficulties, for casually mentioned the Survey Report for 1874-75 that Mr. Pocock reached height 22,040 feet from the Mana valley, though there record the actual spot reached.
the first half last century Traill and the Stracheys penetrated well above the snow-line. the fifties the Schlagintweits visited the Milam glaciers and the Kamet group, where they reached height 22,259 feet the Tibetan side. For many years Colonel who selected Nain Sing and Kishen Sing for the survey, made very high excursions the course his annual shooting trips. 1883 Graham made the first pu: mountaineering expedition amongst these snows, reaching heights over 22,000 feet the Nanda Devi group, and being the first penetrate far into the mysterious valley the Rishi Ganga. This expedition still constitutes the most successful ever recorded the annals Himalayan mountaineering, but its occur- rence just quarter century before public judgment India was ripe for its appreciation, and Graham’s own lamentable carelessness writing the extremely condensed accounts* his experiences, have combined give excuse for doubting the accuracy his statements which has been seized upon critics sometimes too much interested wholly impartial. rule the latter have passed over his first visit Sikhim and his visit Garhwal, confining themselves disputing the ascent Kabru during his second visit Sikhim. But for the reputation the Alpine Club—to which, noted, Graham never belonged—it pleasant record that never lacked partisans amongst the most eminent and experienced its members.
first visited these mountains return journey from Tibet 1905, details which have already appeared the Geographical and Journals. Last summer Major the Hon. Bruce, 5th Gurkha Mr. Mumm, and myself, hoped celebrate the Jubilee the Alpine Club attempting the ascent Everest,
New Series, vol. Alpine Journal, vol. 12; Good Words, 1885. Geographical Journal, vol. 29, pp. 201-211. Alpine Journal, vol. 28, pp. 202-228.
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364 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
least the exploration its unknown glaciers. this scheme received the most generous and cordial support from President and this Society. When were peremptorily forbidden enter Tibet the Home Government, was able persuade friends join expedition Garhwal, the chief object which would necessarily mountain climbing rather than geographical This must excuse for the smallness the geographical which able place before you. Nowadays there only room for the specialist the various branches geographical The only specialty which can lay claim snow-craft.
Besides ourselves, the party consisted the guides, Alexis and Henri Brocherel, Courmayeur, who had accompanied expedition, and Moritz Inderbinen, Zermatt, who had been companion for over twenty years, and with him and Freshfield made recent attempt Ruwenzori. Owing the great kindness Colonel Kemball, the 5th Gurkha Rifles, Bruce was able bring from this regiment Subhadar Karbir Burathoki, Havildar Damar Sing Rana, and seven riflemen, mostly Magars and Gurungs. Damar Sing was trained plane-tabler, had charge the stores, and kept the accounts. Karbir counted guide, for had climbed good deal with Bruce Kashmir and the Karakoram, and also with Sir Martin Conway the Alps. The others, though accustomed run about quite regardless the accepted laws gravity, were yet ignorant the higher mysteries mountaineering. But men trained such regiment this was consequence. They never failed us, they never complained, and they never lost their cheerfulness. them could have done very little. They were superior the best Garhwalis have met, and even the Bhotias, need hardly add that they bore resemblance whatever the Kumaoni the down- country native.
Bruce also brought asingle servant cook, and undertook the entire organization the commissariat and Gurkhas’ outfit, while Mumm and were still England. joined him with the guides Almora April and got away the 26th, crossing the Pindar river beyond Gwaldam the 28th, after 50-mile march through the Kumaon foot-
pushed rapidly across the three intervening ranges the middle hills, the zone the pine, the oak, the rhododendron, and the fir. Snow was still lying the ground the upper forests, which are very beautiful, and from which most exquisite views the high peaks the east and north are obtained. Our route lay Wan and Kanol Ramni, where picked the stores which Bruce had sent charge Karbir; then down the Bireh Ganga and the other side Kaliaghat (Pana), passing above the remains the lake formed the great landslip and over the Kuari pass, 12,400 feet,
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NANDA DEVI, 25,660 ft.
LOWER END G.T.S. PEAK,
DURASHI PEAK, 14,630 ft.
THE RISHI VALLEY FROM ABOUT 15,000 ft. LATA RIDGE.
DIRECTION NANDA GHUNTI, LOWER END TRISUL 23.406 21,286 ft. RINTI NALA,
Photo. Mumm.
MAY 10, 1907.
THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL. 365
Tapoban the Dhaoli, which reached May having covered another miles. From the Kuari pass, still deep snow, saw the wonderful panorama peaks stretching from beyond Badrinath right round Dunagiri, and, thanks the weather and early start, obtained some excellent photographs. this occasion required one hundred and fifty coolies carry our baggage and the six supplies for the whole party which were taking with us. Had not been for the assistance Mr. Stowell, the Deputy Commissioner for Garhwal, and Bruce’s forethought, might have lost many valuable days this part our journey.
Our first objective was the Rishi valley, means which hoped find practicable route for the attack Trisul, feet, the second highest peak the Nanda Devi group, visit 1905 having shown that there was practicable route the south west. This valley, though well wooded, and some miles length breadth its broadest, has never been permanently inhabited, but receives annual two months’ visit from the Tolma shepherds, The Rishi Ganga bursts into the Dhaoli the hamlet Rini, 6000 feet, but narrow and precipitous the gorge that Graham’s party was the only one which had penetrated far it. Mr. Ryall, his report the work the assistant-surveyor who entered 1874, dwells the exposure and privations the Rishi Ganga valley, the survey which perhaps the most formidable undertaking the whole range the Himalayas yet accomplished.”
The name Rishi” applies firstly the seven mindborn” sons Brahma, now represented the seven stars the Great Bear, and whom the Vedic hymns were revealed; secondly, comes mean inspired solitary sage, hermit, near can translate it, and easy understand that the mystery with which this valley surrounded and the awe with which regarded led belief the existence such supernatural beings within its inaccessible recesses, and the bestowal the name. had hoped try the route the valley for myself, but the river was swollen with the melting snows, and the local people declared that was impossible for laden coolies get along it. There is, however, back door into the upper part this valley, known the Tolma shepherds, which has been entered single surveyor, few native shikarris, and three four determined sportsmen, none, however, having got nearly far Graham with the exception Mr. Davis, from whom was able get some idea the topography. From Tapoban our heavy camp and stores were sent Surai Thota (surai Cupressus torulosa) (7290 feet),* with some the Gurkhas, wait—as turned out—until June spending several days the slopes above the hamlet
Vide Notes.
366 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
Lata, and reconnoitring the cliffs along which our route must lie, regretfully came the conclusion that, owing the depth the snow, was present impossible take coolies across with the necessary three weeks’ supplies, decided pass for the present the Dhaoli and Dunagiri valleys the Bagini glacier beyond the village Dunagiri, and the north-east the peak that name, our main still remaining Surai Thota. May Bruce established our temporary base camp (12,850 feet) the foot the Bagini glacier, level with the last rhododendron and birch trees. According the G.T.S. 1874), the Bagini glacier must have receded about now terminates about 13,700 feet. The Dunagiri glacier the G.T.S., flowing down from the north, does not now join it, but ends above slope covered with moraine stuff close the spot marked the G.T.S. started Damar Sing with the plane-tabling, and reconnoitred the upper part the glacier basin together. had hoped, there seemed strong probability that mountaineering party could force their way into the Rishi valley, over the ridge between the G.T.S. peaks 22,516 feet, and Dunagiri, 23,184 feet, and get out lower down. also hoped learn something the route Trisul, for this was really unexplored country decided this course instead trying peak, which there considerable choice hereabouts.
May the six Europeans, with Karbir, Kulbahadur, Buddhichand, and Dhan Lal, started the Bagini glacier, taking eight coolies carry loads. camped (15,500 feet) the right lateral moraine, sending the coolies back once. Next morning (May 21) pushed the Bagini glacier, and then turning almost due south, our first plane-table station (16,140 feet), continued along the main course the glacier which, flowing from the direction Dunagiri Parbat, sweeps round towards the north under the two peaks 22,735 feet and 22,516 feet, locally known Kalanka and Changabang respectively. The latter the peak ascended Graham 1883, and named him Monal.” worth recording here that the bestowal this name, after the monal pheasants that saw “on its slopes,” has been urged proof Graham’s unveracity. But how can any one imagine that meant saw them the summit, even above the his more detailed papers Good Words, explicitly states that saw them between his camp the banks the Rishi and his final bivouac—a locality which they abounded the time our visit. Changabang the most superbly beautiful mountain have ever seen, its north-west face, sheer precipice over 5000 feet, being com- posed white granite with pale pinkish tinge, that first mistaken for snow lying the cliffs absolutely impossible angle.
All who were bound for the pass were heavily loaded, had
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THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL. 367
carry Primus stoves, petroleum, cooking-pots, tents, sleeping-bags, instruments, and ammunition, large supply ropes, and pro- visions sufficient last our party eight for ten days. For, having got into the Rishi valley, intended get out the interval must self-supporting. The sun was oppressive that after tramping over the snow for five hours stopped, a.m., under the shade some huge blocks which formed part irregular medial moraine (18,300 feet). Instead making for the pass directly under Changabang, had now decided right the head this arm the glacier, more directly under the great easterly spur Mumm was not going cross the pass with us, and re- turned the camp above Dunagiri with and Damar Sing, leaving party Europeans and four Gurkhas. rejoined later Surai Thota.
May started 4.30 a.m., but Bruce and had very soon stop with cold feet, and was probably this time that Karbir got his had rope over the last slopes, and the guides cut many steps. Our loads seemed grow inordinately heavy, but a.m. stood the crest the pass. Its height comes out 20,100 feet, and the name Bagini pass would most naturally belong it.
From the pass looked down vast shut snow-clad peaks, while 3000 feet above the west towered the icy crest Dunagiri. But the descent the south side looked bad that had set about once. The Brocherels had brought good supply iron pitons from Courmayeur, and, means fixing these into cracks the rocks and doubling ropes round them, were able lower our- selves and the loads down the snow-draped cliffs below us. really was difficult bit mountaineering, the descent about 1000 feet oceupying over five hours, and the two Brocherels were quite their element. This was very fine performance the part the Gurkhas, and striking testimony both their inherently resolute character and the excellence their military training. Remember that they were called upon perform feat which was quite beyond the powers any the local men. instance the value local native evidence, may mention that Mr. Ward, the Rifle Brigade, told that less than three months later our route was pointed out him lying over the spurs the west Dunagiri, along shepherd’s summer track. had disappeared from the neighbourhood their village and reappeared eight days later Surai Thota. Obviously, then, went the only route they knew
were very glad camp about the snow-field directly the south foot the pass (18,800 painfully cold night got off May 23, and proceeded down huge snow- covered glacier south-easterly direction, with the twin peaks
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368
MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
Nanda Devi showing over the ridge straight ahead us, and then, turning sharp corner south-westerly direction, leaving the magnificent cone Changabang behind us. six hours reached the end the glacier for which the name Rhamani Arhamani was afterwards given shikarri whom took the foot the Trisuli Nala, from the slopes which visible. said that neither nor any one else had ever been there, though Graham must have touched it, and don’t know that there avy authority for the name. had fondly hoped find ourselves the great glaciers the foot Nanda Devi itself, but the G.T.S. naturally very in- accurate here. The glacier ended steep tongue covered with horribly unstable litter moraine stuff.
next came extraorlinary gorge cut out the glacier stream, which was often quite invisible, though very audible, under thick beds hard snow. one had lower our loads the aud follow ourselves similar manner. After food and short rest, broke out the gorge the right, climbed the steep slopes the west, and down again the first patch birch trees, where camped p.m. (13,100 feet) amongst enormous boulders, which still held some snowdrifts from which could get water. the east towered the cliffs Nanda Devi, too hold the snow. South was the entrance the Trisuli Nala, though the peak itself was invisible. Directly our feet, more than 1000 feet below, lay the junction the Rhamani and Rishi torrents.
started late May 24, after most refreshing night, and skirted high along the slopes that fall one continuous sweep from the peak marked Niti, No. 17,056 feet” the into the Rishi Ganga, here only 10,900 feet. There thus drop over 6000 feet horizontal distance miles, while the slopes the opposite south bank the Rishi are very much steeper. After only couple hours this work saw some (Ovis nahura) below us, and killed two, after easy stalk. Much the wrath the guides, decided stay where were and eat them, camped under overhanging cliff, near convenient supply juniper bushesand snow. For May noted “really terrific dry coasting along the slopes Niti peak (No. about 13,000 were all well loaded, the strata being the wrong way, were constantly toiling steep slopes avoid difficulties, only find horrid cut-offs the other side. This lasted from 7.30 am. which time had covered miles straight line, when, after particularly heart-breaking ascent, came upon most unexpected sight. deep lateral nala far below was thick forest tall, straight pines surrounding small grassy alp. For five days had had rely snow for drink- ing purposes, and only the two camps had been able get any wood, this was very welcome change. afterwards found
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THE HIMALAYA 369
that this was the summer pasture, named Dibrugheta (11,730 feet from six which the Tolma shepherds annually bring their flocks. The alp less than half mile south-south-west the spot marked 14,710b the this probably error, though appears indicate the furthest point reached the surveyor this
direction.
May started rather late—at 7.45 a.m.—to make our way past the screen bare cliffs, which, towering 2900 feet above us, com- pletely shut the nala the west. kept first the left bank the stream, and rapidly gained height following the crest old lateral moraine. Standing this irrefutable witness the former presence glaciers, was interesting observe that this narrow and steep-sided glen was truly wedge-shaped section, and now showed signs glacier activity, even the exposed rock-faces opposite, other than the presence the moraine itself. the head the glen, however, small hanging valley, the old glacier having doubtless here made stand the course its retreat, and inhibited the cutting-back action the stream. ‘Three weeks later, when thar-shooting, followed the glen with great difficulty right down the Rishi Ganga, and, from what saw, came the conclusion that Dibrugheta itself may represent terminal moraine, but that this ancient glacier had never descended below that spot, unless argue that the torrent may have obliterated all traces it.
Crossing the torrent about miles above Dibrugheta, climbed the steep grassy slopes, still snow-covered, and crossed the ridge over 14,000 feet. Gentle snow-slopes led p.m. three stone goat-pens half buried snow. was Durashi feet from seven knew must the right track. The highest peak the Curtain between Durashi and Dibrugheta was afterwards found feet, and its lowest depression 14,100 feet. From this little peak, and from the top cliff quarter mile tothe west our camp, obtained most extraordinary views down series appalling precipices the bed Rishi Ganga far below us. From Lata peak, 12,624 feet, the side which had encamped fortnight earlier, the drop the river must nearly 6000, and this horizontal distance only three-quarters mile.
still had find the whereabouts the goat track across the ahead us, and when left camp next morning (May 27), 6.30 a.m. cold wet mist and falling snow, realized that were for some interesting work. started the slopes the north-west and tried the cliffs several places, but, owing the mist, failed hit off the route. after some good climbing, found ourselves a.m. the summit small peak (15,700 feet). christened this Tolma peak, because believed that went down the further
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370 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
side should reach the village that name. was snowing and blowing, and the descent the steep snow gullies below called for great care and all the usual precautions. Fortunately, the angle gradually eased off, and were able unrope and glissade down old avalanche which took right into the forest the head the Tolma glen. then raced off down this densely wooded gorge, sometimes the bed the torrent itself, but more often creeping along the cliffs its left bank, and through Tolma village our base camp Surai Thota, thoroughly well satisfied with our eight days’ expedition.
Bruce had, most unfortunately, damaged his knee during our passage down the valley, and now became painful that was com- pelled lie up. But the rains were approaching, and the assault Trisul still made with his generously given consent decided leave him the base camp Surai Thota, with his servant and four the Gurkhas. May 31, Mumm and set off with the three guides, Karbir, Damar Sing, Kulbahadur, Dhan Lal, Buddhichand, and also young shikari, with twenty-three coolies carry our supplies for three weeks. mounted the steep track Tolma village, and then turned straight upwards into the forest past some magnificent deodars, one which measured feet circumference feet above the ground. The woods were full monal pheasants, and found nest with six eggs it. Early the afternoon camped pretty little alp known Hyetui Kharak (11,500 feet).
were 5.30 June but could not get the coolies off till Soon after the tree limit (12,000 12,500 feet) had been passed, the guides commenced the arduous task breaking track through the snow for the coolies, who required the help the rope get round one particularly awkward corner. 12.30 reached the col (14,700 feet), and commenced the passage the cliffs leading Darashi. The guides had cut every step the way, while and the Gurkhas helped the coolies over the worst bits. The goat track should have been clear now, but, have said, the season was late one, and every ledge was covered steep slope snow. Fortunately one slipped, and soon after p.m. reached our old quarters Durashi. Next day crossed the Curtain” ridge, dropped down 2500 feet the stream its foot, and reached Dibrugheta.
June the coolies got off before a.m., had told them that this would their last march. Crossing over intervening spur, struck down diagonally over very bad ground, below the slopes had traversed May and 25, the Rishi Ganga, making for spot called Duti (10,900 feet). Here some huge boulders the bed the torrent made easy construct temporary bridge, which crossed about noon. were now the south side the Rishi Ganga, and the opening the Trisuli Nala—as named it—was only very short
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distance further the stream. But there is, course, sign track, and had climb 1500 feet before could turn east along the densely crowded thickets rhododendron and birch which clothe the sides the valley. soon after p.m. found fairly good camping-place the bed the Trisuli Nala itself, amongst tangle birch trees, and just level with the last the pines. This camp (11,600 feet) was our base for Trisul, paid off all but three the coolies and sent them back their homes, with instruc- tions return three weeks they felt inclined, but that were quite independent their services. This last statement, though true, was merely ensure their return.
June Damar Sing climbed the steep crags the right bank the stream with the plane-table, while went the opposite slopes get look the Very soon saw glacier with series moraines its left bank, which came sweeping into our nala from the south-west almost right angle. Soon after gaining this, about noon, saw three crossing the ice, and shot couple for food, which think was allowable under the circumstances, and considering that only one sportsman, Mr. Davis, had ever been here. His camping-place was pointed out the shikari, who called Betatoli, which name therefore attach the glacier. heads from the north-eastern slopes the G.T.S. peak 20,842 feet, miles north Trisul. Its middle course broken formidable ice-fall. Formerly the Trisuli glacier flowed into the Betatoli glacier from the south, and deflected the latter towards the north. Now that the Trisuli glacier has receded, the Beta- toli has straightened itself out, leaving series lateral moraines along its left bank. Further, has completely blocked the Trisuli Nala, impinging against the cliffs its eastern wall, and presenting the south almost perpendicular face ice several hundred feet high, the base which the Trisuli torrent has carved out ice-tunnel. The snout the Betatoli descends just below the level the birches and rhododendrons about 12,400 feet, and showed signs recent recession.
did not seem worth while carry our base camp any higher, decided leave Damar Sing charge carry the plane-table survey, and wait for Bruce with the shikari and the three coolies who had elected remain with us. June set off with Mumm, the three guides, Karbir, and the three other Gurkhas; carried the lightest possible outfit—four Mummery tents weighing about each, and eider-down sleeping-bags for the whole party. followed the left bank the stream straight the Trisuli Nala, and then took the left lateral moraine the Betatoli glacier. After following this till the ice became less steep and broken, crossed the glacier right angles, scrambled the moraine the right bank, and dropped down into unexpected little hollow the far side. Its floor consisted
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372 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
old moraine heaps thickly carpeted with coarse grass and juniper scrub about feet high. was pleasant and well-sheltered spot, obviously the last which could camp any comfort, so, although was only a.m., and our altitude only feet, decided stay here. Amongst ourselves always called Juniper Camp.”
After caching some tins and meat bed snow, started a.m. (June the moraine-covered slopes leading the Trisuli glacier. Keeping well the left bank the Trisuli reached the snout the glacier about 14,000 feet present rapidly receding. noticed that the black gneiss cliffs the opposite (right) side the glacier were seamed with beautiful veins white, which took for quartz. went on, the left lateral moraine grew more and more distinct, and soon its crest offered excellent path. first led due south, but soon began bend round slightly the south-west. Straight ahead were 22,490 feet, and 22,360 feet, and closing our view the glacier the west were some high black cliffs festooned with icicles. Then saw our moraine (left lateral) taking sharp turn the west, and, climbing the mountain-side, disappear amongst snow and ice. the same moment saw the great gap between and the middle peak Trisul. had reconnoitred its dangerous southern side from the Kurumtoli (Garhwali-Kail) glacier 1905, when pointed out the mistake G.T.S. Three months later was again find myself the south side the range, and discover that the Sukeram glacier was also wrongly delineated. Yet must admit that the mountain here complex, and the access these glaciers difficult, that the only wonder that have any maps them all.
went the last slope the moraine that was free from snow and camped 2.30 p.m., height about 16,500 feet. This the highest point which have seen any plants grasses this part the Himalaya, though further north they extend very much higher. front us, looked towards the invisible summit was magnificent ice-fall, and above that huge rolling wastes desolate snow. Starting 5.30 a.m, June continued mount westerly direction, having this ice-fall our left hand, and line dark cliffs our right. The slopes were steep first, and vur loads kept the pace down. reaching the open snow-fields above, the sun became very trying, and felt the exertion severely. About noon the slope steepened again, and violent west wind began blow, p.m. camped altitude which works out 20,050 feet. The surface the snow was whipped and driven into and through our clothes apparently from every direction. managed with great difficulty persuade one the Primus stoves work, and Henri gave all hot drink. turned with Karbir, who watched over like nurse, although was suffering considerable pain from the frost- bite
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THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL. 373
had contracted the Bagini glacier. passed cold uncomfort- able night, owing the violent wind and the snow which was driven into the tents. Next morning, June the gale was still raging. The tents, thongh only feet high, could hardly kept standing, and was quite impossible make start. Inderbinen was suffering from very severe headache, and the three Gurkhas were feeling the cold acutely, though without complaint, decided send them down Juniper camp the first sign lull, which came about noon. The rest stayed the hope that things might improve next morning. could not stay outside the tents, passed the day smoking and dragging out Karbir’s reminiscences war. has been forty affairs, and great bullet-wounds. takes sensible view war, and fights hurt. fear Mumm had very dull time alone his tent. could not even melt snow drink, though the guides triel for more than hour. The second night seemed worse than the first, and lot snow had driven into the tents morning, literally tore ourselves the roots and struggled down throngh the bitter cold weather. got out the wind soon neared the line cliffs the ice-fall, and leaving some things our old camping place, trudged back along the moraine Juniper camp, which reached 2.30 p.m.
June enjoyed well-earned rest and the comforts fire, and although snowed from p.m., felt very Fearing for Karbir’s frost-bitten foot, tried persuade him give the attempt, which decided renew onthe morrow. But was use- less, Bruce had warned would be, made some bharal skin covers for his boots, which hoped would help keep out the cold. Mumm had severe indigestion all night, and was unwell the morn- ing that decided return the camp the Trisuli Nala. was extremely hard lines, for had had all the hard work and discomfort far, and stood high altitudes well that could certainly have reached the summit with us. So, great regret, parted June 11, with his most strict injunctions get the top somehow. with Alexis and Henri Brochereland Karbir. Dhan Lal and Buddhichand came with for the day carry load and lighten that the guides. Juniper camp 6.20 a.m., reached our moraine camp June 6-7 very quickly 10.50. All the morning the weather looked very arctic, but the absence sun probably accounted for our excellent pace the way moraine. Atabout 15,000 feet put several ram-chickor tibetanus), and saw couple very dark-coloured foxes. After much discussion with the guides, had come the conclusion that our best chance was rush the peak from lower camp, and not tempt the wind again the exposed snow-slopes higher up. Snow began fall noon, and soon after- wards sent the Gurkhas back and pitched our two Mummery tents
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MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
about 17,450 feet, under the shelter the high cliffs already men- tioned. immediately set work with the Primus stove, and after long drink all round, filled three large thermos” bottles with cocoa and weak tea. this way hoped provide breakfast drink and enough liquid for the ascent, without having waste several hours over snow-melting the next morning.
Snow continued fall gently till the early hours. tried (June 12) but could not face the cold, which attacked feet and hands before could get frozen boots on, although had kept the latter inside sleeping-bag all night. However, started 5.30 a.m., and carried only the very lightest loads made very rapid progress. reached our old upper camp (20,000 feet) a.m., where remained half hour eat small meal raisins and plasmon biscuits, for had all fully realized that was most unwise for try and negotiate heavy meal such Seeing signs crevasses ahead, put the rope, Alexis leading, then Karbir, Henri, and myself. Then went the snow-slopes, continuous steep- ness but withal quite easy. breathing was very rapid, and felt very feeble, but was securely tied the rope and could not escape, The tourmentes wind-driven snow, which this slope the mountain seems very liable, were times almost paralyzing their intensity, yet sure that bore the cold better than should have borne extreme heat. noon found had reached 21,000 feet, and here Alexis had take off the small snow-shoes, with which had been breaking track through the crust new snow, the slope steepened again. should mention that our route lay south-west south all day after leaving the site the upper camp. began doubt capacity for maintaining the pace much longer, but Alexis and Karbir seemed quite happy, and Henri offered pull rope much liked, pocketed pride and consented this breach the rules. Except for the briefest halts recover breath, now rose rapidly and continuously, the slopes being that particular angle steepness which enables the climber make height most rapidly, and all the peaks sight sank below us, except Nanda Devi. neared the summit the bitter west wind again swooped down us, rattling the icicles our beards and moustaches. p.m. emerged flat-topped dome snow, forms the apex the huge triangular snow-field which set steep angle upon the north-east face the mountain, and along the western edge which had climbed. hailed the summit, and, driving his ice-axe into incipient crack the snow, planted the stick and square canvas had insisted bringing up. But was not yet satisfied, for just beyond us, across dip the ridge, was most provoking cornice, which cut off the view the south. Excitement made lose all sense fatigue, and pushed on, the tail thus leading the head. Not knowing the size the cornice,
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THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL. 375
that the extent its overhang, had keep well down the western slope. The snow was frozen hard, and the crampons was wearing bit well; however, the rest the party were not wearing these “adventi- tious aids” that day, and was ordered cut steps. The distance was very short, and soon crawled the cornice and looked over the edge, Henri hanging the rope case ofaccidents. ‘The first thing noticed was that Henri had been quite right insisting the first peak being the highest, but would not have missed the view down that astounding southern precipice for anything. Over the foothills was dense copper-coloured haze—a dust-storm from the plains— but the west seemed gazing into endless space. cannot describe that view, but the memory remains most treasured possession.
The cold was very trying, and, turning back almost once, left the first summit 4.30 p.m. felt quite done up, but had difficulty with breathing soon began downhill. Going very fast, reached our camp under the cliffs p.m.; but perhaps watch was fast, for was light that the men insisted rolling the tents and sleeping-bags, and carried everything down our old camp the moraine 16,500 feet. That night only desire was for sleep; was neither hungry nor thirsty, though had taken very little all day.
hope have made plain that the two Brocherels, whom all the credit the ascent due, and Karbir showed signs distress during the climb. ascended from camp 17,450 feet the summit, 23,406 say 6000 feet, ten hours. Graham estimated his highest camp Kabru 18,500 feet, and reached the summit, 24,000 feet—an ascent 5500 feet—in little over nine hours. each case this gives rate approximately 600 feet hour. Turn- ing the Alps, the best instance can remember for comparison the ascent Mont Blane, 15,781 feet from the Dome Hut 10,499 feet the Italian side. have twice performed this ascent 5282 feet five and half hours, which gives rate 960 feet hour. addition this diminution progress, distinctly conscious both mental and physical lassitude very great but have now been 20,000 feet and over about ten occasions, and slept least three nights such altitudes, and experience confirms the belief that the effect low atmospheric pressure depends the strength and condition the climber much more than the actual altitude attains.* also believe that the idea acclimatization low pressures fallacious, for experience the effects are cumulative; and was this consideration which finally decided rush the peak from low camp.
Vide Sickness and its Causes’ the writer.
376 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
Next morning (June 13) Alexis and proceeded the level snow- covered surface the Trisuli glacier for one and half hours; while Henri and Karbir started back down the glacier with heavy loads, Ahead lay the Trisul Gap, would name it, for, having never been crossed, can hardly called pass. has the being less than 18,000 feet altitude, and situated the great which runs from the middle peak Trisul about 22,000 feet)
an easterly direction through the peaks and A,, the The map therefore misplaces this water-parting between the Pindar and the Rishi about miles, showing the ridge articulating with the highest (northernmost) peak
down the Trisuli glacier, redistributed our loads Juniper camp, which had looked our home since June and proceeded across the Betatoli and down our base camp the mouth the Trisuli Nala. Here were welcomed Bruce and Mumm, the former having sufficiently recovered come over into the Rishi valley, but being now down with fever, that was impossible for him attempt repeat the ascent Trisul. will always source great regret that neither companions were able share this ascent. all worked together during the expedition, but think Bruce worked harder than the rest; certainly Mumm and feel that owe him great debt gratitude for the trouble took over organization both before and during the journey. The ascent Trisul quite easy from the technical point view, but demands much mechanical endurance that one who not perfect health can hope achieve it.
June Bruce and Mumm started back across the Rishi valley with the guides and Gurkhas, all carrying double loads. the 14th went off with Kulbahadur and Pahal Sing endeavour force our way right the Rishi valley the foot Nanda Devi, taking four days’ food with us. With considerable difficulty reached the junction the Arhamani torrent with the Ganga, where crossed the latter the north bank snow-bridge feet), could get further along the south bank, and the current was too strong for wading. Here camped under overhanging rock amongst the birch trees. Next morning climbed straight about 13,500 feet, and the intervening 1700 feet cliffs between this and the Rishi Ganga saw practicable route the valley, though obtained most wonderful view Nanda Devi. think that were just beyond Graham’s furthest point this direction. could see sign glacier filling the head the Rishi valley, such shown the G.T.S. maps, and Damar Sing reported from his observa- tions from the ridge which forms the eastern boundary the Trisuli Nala, that the glaciers from the north and south Nanda Devi not join each other the western base that peak.
Phot
L. Mumm,
THE RIVER ABOVE
the )
w- ile er oe nd
THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL. 377
Crossing back the south bank returned the Rishi valley and rejoined the others Duti the evening the 15th. June all pushed Dibrugheta, where were relieved our loads the coolies, who came the following day and carried them Durashi. June reached our base camp the Dhaoli valley Surai Thota.
Our next objective was Kamet, had move our base camp the Dhaoli valley towards Niti. The encamping ground named Juma undoubtedly situated the old moraine the Juma glacier, there are several erratic boulders stranded the hillsides the west. Juma Gwar and the village Malari the track generally carried several hundreds feet above the Dhaoli river, magnificent gorge, and skirts several stretches water-worn rock cut into great concave cups and hollows, still quite regular and one place the path crosses open-sided pot-hole about 400 500 feet above the present level the river. All these contours have been cut water flowing the same direction the present stream, and not lateral tributary torrents. obvious, then, that the river has either greatly deepened its bed, that its erosive action kept pace with the uplift that bed. From the size these water markings, concluded that the river must formerly have carried greater volume water than does now. They occur section the river only miles below its present source, and just that section which pierces the main axis Similar phenomena are frequent occurrence the valleys many southward-flowing Himalayan rivers, and have been explained due increased erosion, cutting back, and capture, consequent the copious rainfall and steeper slopes the southern side. But just the area drained the last miles the Dhaoli which has much smaller rainfall than the rest Garhwal. this instance seem find support for the theory propounded Medlicott, earlier drainage system which has continued drain area originally the north the main axis elevation. impossible modify both these theories and suggest that before the barrier reached its present proportions, the rainfall above Malari and Niti was greater than now, thus enabling larger river than exists present cut down and keep pace with the uplift its bed? From what saw the neighbouring parts Tibet two years ago, quite that the rainfall there was formerly much greater than
Malari, 10,011 feet G.T.S., Bhotia summer village, are opposite the mouth the Girthi the country the north and east beginning assume ‘Tibetan character, the skies are
For account these very interesting people, ride Sherring’s paper No.
378 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION bluer and the mountains barer, both vegetation and snow, though there are some very fine deodars close the village. Here was greeted Bhotia whom had met two years previously Shibchilam, Hundes. had there engaged yaks from the Daba take belongings back into India. surprise, the Tibetan charge bolted the night with the yaks the foot the Chor Hoti pass, after having taken all through the Dakka hills and over the Shalshal pass into British territory. had difficulty reaching Niti, but, matter form, wrote note English complaining the Months afterwards had received postal order for Rs.8 for which could never account. Now the Bhotia informed that the had sent this sum the balance due from the full yak had already paid, and which had been forfeited owing the flight the Tibetan driver. This striking example, not only Tibetan honesty, but the friendliness with which English people are regarded Tibetan officials. Doubtless the epidemic political aloofness which present popular this country will lose for the good impres- sion that have made, for the position which have taken over the question will inevitably attributed fear.
From Malari sent our baggage the valley through village Timor Shim, the encamping ground below the large Bhotia village Niti, 11,857 feet, while crossed the easy Kurkuti Dhar, 15,064 feet, getting fine views the Hoti peaks and the Gamsali glen. The descent camp about 3500 feet was very easily accom- plished hour, thanks several glissades, for were entering country gentler contours and very different conformation the ranges which form the main axis elevation.
last were able persuade Karbir pay some attention his frost-bitten foot, from which was now suffering acute pain. Leaving him charge the base camp Timor Shim, started again along the Niti track with eighteen jhobus and fourteen coolies. Dhaoli valley above Niti considerable geological interest, for the river follows the course the great fault between the crystalline rocks the main axis (Nanda Devi, Trisul, Dunagiri, and Kamet range) and the younger sedimentary beds which are developed along the Tibetan frontier. the gneiss the right bank are the last outlying the left there only scrub, with the last rhododendron and birch trees Goting E.G. (12,490 feet) where camped June 26, The view the valley and the actual surroundings this spot are strikingly reminiscent the analogous solitudes across the frontier. The bharhal, the marmot (A. Himalayanus), the red-billed chough eremita), and the snow-pigeon (C. leuconota) seem the chief permanent inhabitants. The very air now much drier and clearer and the sun more powerful, and could daily watch the white clouds roll from the south-west only dissolve above our heads.
THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL, 379
June crossed the Dhaoli natural bridge. Above this the valley was remarkable reason the triple tier gravel beaches raised one above the other the left bank turning the Raikana Nala which still follows the course the great fault which have alluded, deserted the track the Niti pass. But was interesting note that the Raikana river possessed greater volume water than the Dhaoli, although the latter has received the waters the Ganes Ganga. this region the rainfall diminishes with every step towards the north.
June made our first camp the Raikana Nala, place called Kali Kharak (13,600 feet). were the left bank the Raikana river, which has here cut deep gorge for itself through morajne stuff along the line the great fault. the valley the north-west huge moraine, marked the G.T.S. series hills. is, however, true terminal moraine, the greater part which still lying ice which certainly descends below 15,000 feet. Immediately its foot irregular plain, scattered over with huge moraine blocks and supporting scanty growth juniper and grass: this called Raikana Kharak (14,200 feet), and occasionally used pasturage for yaks and jhobus the Niti Bhotias. Here saw rare and beautiful little bird, pectoralis, near relative the Arctic Crossing this, the next morning ascended the moraine, but, owing the badness the going, had stop a.m. and send the jhobus back their scanty pastures Raikana Kharak. Our camp was pitched 15,350 feet, level patch adjoining the ice the left bank the glacier, and directly below Chango, 20,216 feet. were able obtain wood from the juniper bushes Raikana Kharak.
June proceeded the left bank the main Raikana glacier with the two Brocherels. passed several fine glacial pools, which might almost accorded the title marjelen lakes, the larger ones containing small floating bergs. three hours reached height about 16,300 feet, the glacier being very rough and crevassed. the north-north-west was snow-pass leading into Tibet, and this side easy access. the west were looking straight glacier, which leads what take Strachey’s 24,670-feet peak, about mile the north-east Kamet itself, and which had seen from Gurla Mandhata, 100 miles the east 1905. Owing inaccuracies the map, had overshot our mark, which was the glacier leading Kamet itself. After watching some bharhal feeding the stony slopes opposite over 16,000 feet, turned back crossing over the right bank the glacier, and skirting round great buttress 1each the glacier which flows from the actual south-east base Kamet, and whicb, for convenience, shall call the Kamet glacier. had climb high above some bad cliffs the buttress, but eventually dropped down
380 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
the Kamet glacier and continued toa height about feet. Here saw enough show that were the only possible route which our peak could attacked this side, though could not reconcile the map with what saw before us. Descending the Kamet glacier, found that united with the Raikana glacier, its extremely broken and moraine-covered surface having doubtless deceived the surveyors into thinking that the two ice-streams did not join one another. reached our camp late the evening, after very long and fatiguing day.
June started reconnoitre Kamet, taking with the two Brocherels, six Gurkhas, and ten coolies. Crossing the Raikana glacier, went the Kamet glacier, and, after some rough walking, made camp 16,800 feet the left lateral moraine, where found some big boulders grassy slope, which gave our camp very luxurious air. usual, sent the coolies back once. July did not start till 6.30 a.m.; follow the glacier further would have been very risky, owing the dangerous hanging glaciers which drape the northern slopes Mana peak (No. 23,862 feet, G.T.S.), turned sharply the north-west very steep moraine-slupe. landed glacier the secondary order which flows down typical hanging valley. Our surroundings gave striking example the conservative effects ice. The small glacier stream emerged from the snout the glacier altitude about 17,400 feet. The ice- covering was obviously checking the development the valley, particular, inhibiting the back cutting the stream, which, have remarked, but small one, for the higher the ice the less the melting.
Heavy clouds were blowing over the ridge from the south-west, but the echo from the cliffs our right kept straight. pushed over ever steepening snow-slopes, and 1.30 p.m. reached the crest the ridge. The Watkin observation gives height 20,180 feet, worked out the way have indicated the notes. But the camp was fixed, usual, hypsometer, and using this lower station, the reading would 20,870 feet. think this tends show that the other altitudes are not overestimated. The clouds cleared somewhat, and saw directly below the avalanche-swept Kamet glacier winding down from the foot that great peak (25,443 feet But were completely cut off from it. Worse still, never got com- plete view its stupendous south-east face, which falls succession red precipices more than 7000 feet the glacier below. had carried the plane-table with us, but with all the clouds about was useless set up; indeed, the cold wind alone was sufficient drive down after had waited for three-quarters hour hopes clear view. had seen enough know that there was practicable route which the peak might attacked this (eastern) side. The
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THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL. 381
upper Kamet glacier horribly dangerous, lying narrow gorge that would quite impossible escape from the ice avalanches which constantly fall it. During the descent again noticed how the clouds were dissipated the dry air Tibet was approached, and over the Chango ridge obtained the most wondrous glimpses that part Tibet which had been good fortune wander two years
Next day returned down the Kamet glacier and crossed the Raikana glacier our camp. One the largest the glacier lakes had emptied itself since had passed three days earlier.
considered useless attempt Kamet from the east, now cross the main range Badrinath, the valley the Our heavy baggage would have round Joshimath, but using snow pass known the natives, hoped able cross with sufficient tents and supplies keep till our heavy camp arrive. all returned Niti, and July had the whole our effects carried down through the wonderful Niti gorge the encamping ground (11,190 feet) opposite the village Gamsali, the right bank the Dhaoli river.
piercing the narrow gorge below Niti, where bends upon itself angle 45°, the Dhaoli cuts its way deeply through vast bed hard silicious mud and great angular boulders, which extends for miles the valley towards Malari, and forms more less level floor, about miles wide its broadest, between the steep gneiss which bound the valley the east and west. cannot escape the conclusion that, though portions this may due from above, considerable part represents moraine left the recession the huge glacier system which still fills the head the Gamsali glen. But feel still more certain that glacier ever pushed through the Niti gorge from above, though there are water-marks there high above the present level the stream, showing how has deepened its bed.
July started the Gamsali valley with about twenty Bhotia coolies, and soon found ourselves amongst chaos huge rocks. These are probably the result rock-falls overlaying moraine stuff. The valley shut either side the most glorious gneiss cliffs, the general effect produced being similar that the Vale Lauter- carved sublime scale, but with the forests absent. Further came unmistakable terminal moraine, its summit raised above the valley floor immediately ahead. this time year was veritable garden flowers, and afforded excellent pasturage for the Gamsali flocks. can only have been formed time when the its parent glacier was almost stationary, only retreating very, very slowly. After this the glacier must have retreated with great rapidity back its present point termination (13,000 feet),
] a 10
MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
about which has made another stand, evidenced the formation and character its moraines. The intermediate distance flat waste stones, through which the stream wanders many channels, but the lateral moraines are still well marked where side streams and avalanches have not destroyed them. The secondary glaciers, coming down from the G.T.S. peak, 19,815 feet, formerly joined the main glacier, and even now come down very much lower than indicated the maps. From the largest stream stone falls, both day and night, over steep cliff the moraine the main glacier below. This example how the recession glacier might particular circumstances close route, for the time when this secondary glacier joined the main ice-stream such rock-falls could not occur. Though have not visited the Ralam pass myself, believe, from what have heard from natives, that this the probable explanation the closing that old route from Johar into Darma.
camped July spot called Thur Udiar (13,000 feet), close the snout the main glacier, which the Gamsali people gave the name Banke gal. Next day followed the left lateral moraine for two and half hours, and camped flat shelf behind called Eri Udiar (Cold Cave) (14,690 feet). Here were the last the juniper bushes; the fact that they had not all been cut for fuel long ago itself showing how rarely the natives visit this spot. Facing was magnificent ice-fall, flowing down the slopes G.T.S. peak, 21,198 feet, north-easterly direction, while from the steep slopes above our camp there was splendid view Rataban, 20,094 feet, and also the beautiful little glacier lake the foot the former peak. The pass which meant cross the range lay between these two fine mountains, but was completely hidden behind subsidiary spur the 21,198-feet peak. was crossed 1862 Colonel Edmund Smyth,* and were told later the priests Badrinath that one the Stracheys had also crossed it.
returned for letters Gamsali with Bruce, who had make arrangements for sending Karbir round the valley route with our heavy camp. the 9th and 10th, spite very unsettled weather, Mumm and Inderbinen explored the upper Banke glacier towards the Mana peak (G.T.S., No. 23,862 feet), finding most unexpected indi- cations pass. regret did not follow this attempting get Mana this new route. July assembled once more Eri Udiar, and started a.m. next morning cross the Bhyundar Khanta, taking about twenty lightly laden coolies with us. reached the top the pass without difficulty noon, and saw three bharhal above us. found the altitude only 16,700 feet. The view the
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THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL. 383
south-west into the green Bhyundar valley was very fine, and great contrast the stony desolation the north. Due south rose Ganri Parbat, 21,747 feet, well named the Brilliant peak,” and over its shoulder could see the top Hathi Parbat, 22,141 feet, named after its resem- blance the body reclining elephant. were standing upon more than mere water-parting, for this the screen which precipi- tates much the rain borne the south-west monsoon, and for the higher snow-line (17,000 18,000 feet) found the north and east, and for the very different flora and fauna which are found that side. The same state things prevails the north and south sides respectively the Nanda Devi group: the south the snow-line about 16,000 feet, the glaciers descend 12,000 feet, and the forests are very extensive while the north the forests are scanty absent, and end well below the terminations the glaciers, which, though frequently greater volume, not descend low 14,000 feet); but, owing its complicated orography, there spot the Bhyundar Khanta, where the two different landscapes are brought into the same immediate field view.
Though the snow-slopes the north are much crevassed, and those the south are steep and require some care, this pass not all difficult compared with the Alpine standard, The G.T.S. inaccurate both sides, but especially the south, where the number and extent the glaciers greatly underrated, one those left out being some miles length. Still, the map was the greatest use us, and would enable mountaineer plan routes with considerable confidence.
The descent broken cirque cliffs over which the ice the Thiapap-ka-bank (Garhwali Bhyundar) glacier tumbles, but avoided them long traverse the west steep snow, and, scrambling down rock gully, reached the dry glacier itself. Gradually edged off the glacier towards its high right lateral moraine. now saw the full face Hathi Parbat, from the western base which large glacier rises, its head pass, practicable this side least, which, according the G.T.S., would lead over the Juma glacier. joins the Thiapap-ka-bank (Bhyundar) glacier about mile below what shown its termination the G.T.S. Opposite this junction camped, 3.30 p.m. There plenty juniper and good shelter amongst the boulders, with water not far off, and the place known Shem Kharak (12,800 feet). did not see the lake marked
continued down the moraine next morning (July 13) for three-quarters hour, when reached the snout the Bhyundar glacier altitude 12,000 feet. Our route now lay across the most luxuriant meadows have met with this part the Himalaya. waded through flowers cur waists— ferns, yellow lilies and anemones, green fritillaries, purple monkshood, and the drier spots
t di- lar hal the
384 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
beautiful blue dwarf iris, and white and red wild strawberries, forget-me-nots and large yellow king-cups the streams. Swallow- tailed butterflies and small birds were flitting about all sides, Altogether found its charm irresistible that camped a.m. This spot was called Bhamini Daur our coolies. situated altitude 11,650 feet, just where the Bhyundar river, which been flowing south-westerly direction, makes sudden sharp turn the south into the jaws extraordinarily abrupt defile. were told, probably incorrectly, that this defile quite impassable lower down. fortnight later passed the spot where enters Vishnu river, mile below Pandukeswar.
left this camp July 14, going due west obvious pass. After scrambling very steep grass slope beside fine waterfall, emerged into hanging valley strewed with moraine heaps, and into the upper (north-west) part which small glacier descends. Passing below its snout, easy grass slopes, reached the pass known the Khanta Khal The hypsometer gave altitude 14,750 feet and the corrected Watkin aneroid 14,500 obtained fine five-plate panorama the peaks and glaciers the north and east, which has been utilized for our map. the clouds somewhat interfered with the view, but the wonderful spike Nalikhanta, 21,713 feet, dominating stood out glittering them. descended through wild glen Hanuman Chatti (8500 feet), the descent 6000 feet miles being accom- plished less than three hours. The beds avalanche snow the nala extended almost down the village, and had some splendid glissades whenever could get down into it.
Hanuman Chatti were the great route Badrinath, which passed through July 15, pitching our camp Mana village the same day. While waiting for Karbir and our heavy camp come up, Mumm visited the junction Bhagat Kharak, and Satopanth glaciers from which the sacred Alaknanda river issues, while pushed Mana pass, and reconnoitred the western approaches Kamet. suggest that the name Sarasutti, given the
main river above Mana the really Saraswati, name
great historical interest and very ancient origin.
Just the Garbyang Bhotias trade with Purang over the Lipu Lekh, the Milam Bhotias with Gyanema over the Untadhura, and the Niti Bhotias with Daba over the Niti pass, the Mana Bhotias carry the trade with Tsaprang and Toling (Totlingmath) over the Mana Chirbattia pass. The gradients are easy, but the going extremely bad for yaks, ponies, sheep, all which are used for transport. upper half the route lies over chaos unstable rocks all shapes and sizes. The distance from the highest village, Mana, the pass miles. can done men four days,
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THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL. 385
but pack-sheep take least week. ‘The chief encamping grounds
Ilypsometer. G.T.S Balbala 15900) 15,250 ~—
July made short reconnaissance towards Kamet. Leaving Ghastoli 6.45 a.m., proceeded the valley past Khaiam foran hour and half, and then turned east into hanging valley over moraine-strewn slope. The ice what might fitly named the Khaiam glacier descends 15,400 feet. Ascending this glacier for some little struck the ridge the south, p.m. reaching the one its peaks altitude 17,550 feet. the west was the Bidum glacier, and east-north-east Kamet itself. The Khaiam glacier probably forms the most practicable route the attack this peak. the south was the Ghastoli peak, marked 18,002 feet the G.T.S. certainly seemed higher, and think the altitude wrongly marked. had very good climb down the rocks the reverse side the ridge the glacier which enters the Mana valley just above Ghastoli, and which would attach that name. The ice descends about 15,000 feet.
European seems have visited the Mana pass since the visit the surveyor, Mr. Pocock, 1874, during which visit, have mentioned, reached the great altitude 22,040 feet. survey appeared have been exceedingly well done.
extremely scarce, though grass and flowers are found great altitudes. the pass itself, 18,000 feet, found Primula minutissima, Parrya lanuginosa, and a draba,* all in flower. The gneiss and crystalline schists extend the water-parting, but the land- the side suggests later formation. The Abijugan glacier appeared the time visit lie exactly across the pass, and discharge streams both towards the and the Alaknanda,
From the number and extent the glaciers this part the Tibetan frontier, concluded that the rainfall must considerable, and certainly greater than further east.
During the whole the week spent the upper Mana valley felt the effects the high altitude severely, though the mythical symptoms etc.) that dread disease, mountain sickness,
For these thank Mr. Edmund Baker, the British Museum.
386 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
were absent. The guides and Gurkhas showed weakening their powers, though had hard time. experienced very bad weather, with high winds and frequent snowstorms, and our doings were finally cut short the breaking the rains July abandoning all hope further ascents, the whole party descended Joshimath, and July recrossed the Kuari pass.
Next day Bruce and Mumm left for Kashmir, taking the guides down with them, while went off long-cherished scheme visit the valleys the west Trisul, and that the Sukeram glacier the south-east. this means hoped link the knowledge had gained 1905 with that last year, and thus possession fairly comprehensive view the orography the Nanda Devi group.
the Peri-Sutol valleys have nothing new add, nor any fault find with the maps. found that the G.T.S. peak, 21,286 feet, was universally known the local people Nanda The two terminal nalas Silla Samudhar and Ghingtoli have been very rarely visited Europeans, and would well repay further study.
the latter part August visited Sunderdunga. This more correctly written Sonadhunga, which means the Golden Rock celebrated for the gold which used obtained washing the river gravel there, and also for the number and malignancy the local demons, who are particularly averse the human voice. the result five observations, obtained 10,636 feet the altitude the shepherds’ huts, which agrees very well with the barometrical value, 10,620 feet, the The place approached very bad jungle track the valley the Sunderdunga (or river, the distance from the hamlet Jatholi, though only miles, taking six hours cover.
August visited the Maiktoli glacier, which descends from between the peaks 22,360 feet (sometimes known East Trisul), and 21,858 feet, height about 12,500 feet, according the G.T.S. the black gorge which leads from Sona-dhunga this glacier permanent snow-bed, the walls the gorge being narrow that the sun can never penetrate its recesses sufficiently melt formed avalanches winter snow, and careful examination reveals most the usual glacier phenomena, such crevasses, lateral moraines, and ice-tables, all course minute scale. This snow- bed indicated the map. Its altitude between 500 and 1000 feet above Sona-dhunga, which would make about 11,000 11,500 feet above sea-level.
August started the Sukeram Nala, and camped for four nights the shepherd’s cave, known Sukeram Udiar, 12,570 feet. this spot beautiful blue poppy (sp. meconopsis) was very abundant. had the plane-table with me, but the rains were not yet over, and unsettled weather prevented from doing much had hoped.
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and yped.
THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL. 387
However, August reached the great southerly bend the Sukeram glacier, and mounting the summit the left lateral moraine, which very unusual type, had fairly good view the upper part the glacier from height 15,500 feet. place the ridge shown the G.T.S., between the peaks 22,360 feet and 20,010 feet, forming water-parting between the Kurumtoli and Sukeram glaciers, saw that these two peaks were entirely separated the Sukeram glacier, which rises from the south-western flanks the peak 22,360 feet, and the southern slopes 22,490 feet, and constantly fed avalanches from the former peak. The massif centring the G.T.S. peak, 20,010 feet, which the Danpurias the upper Pindar valley call Simmu Saga, entirely cut off from the East ridge, forming southern outlying group its own, Chakuri Jhaba was given the name the second peak, 18,517 feet. This group sends down three glaciers towards the Sukeram, two which unite with the main ice-stream. have already pointed out that the glacier shown the joining the Kurumtoli glacier its eastern side does not fact so. represents the head the Sukeram glacier itself, which lies great shelf tilted towards the west. The snout descends 13,200 feet, and shows signs recent recession. the lower part the glacier shot bharhal. was interesting find that the local shikari did not recognize it, but called thar jemlaicus), which there are large numbers about here. was very loth accompany all, and had not been for the presence the two Gurkhas, would probably have run away from this demon-haunted glen. appears certain European native had previously visited the glacier itself, and failed find any sportsman who had ever heard this locality. offers very favourable field for the moun- taineer who not merely actuated the desire break records.
hope that evident from what have written that criticisms the work the G.T.S. are made captious spirit. The triangu- lation the main features the country well known extremely accurate, and considering all the circumstances under which the survey was made, the errors the topographical details are surprisingly few number, and importance from political, strategical, economical point view.
Nores.
the foregoing paper the words right” and left” are used their true orographical sense, unless directly stated otherwise the context.
The map which accompanies this based upon the fixed points
Geographical Journal, vol. 29, 210.
0
re
er
1e,
er, :
388 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
the G.T.S. inch mile. The the Rishi and valleys from plane-table survey the scale inch miles, carried out Havildar Damar Sing Rana, 5th Gurkha Rifles, with little help from myself. few portions this area, which did not penetrate, and the rest the ground covered us, are drawn from corrections the made the spot myself, and from photographs taken various occasions Mr. Mumm and
The altitudes have been taken with two hypsometers and two (44 and inch) Watkin mountain aneroids. immensely indebtod Meteorological Department India, who has most kindly had thirty- two hypsometer and ninety-seven Watkin aneroid observations out for me. observation has been worked out separately, they only deal with some sixty places. The meteorological observatory Muktesar, 7500 feet, close Almora, has been taken the lower station. From May September the maximum variation the daily mean was only inch. The Smithsonian tables have been used throughout, preference Airy’s tables, which would give higher values. am, however, entirely responsible for the final results given this paper.
The great majority our camps have teen fixed one, two, three hypsometer readings, but obviate any overestimation, 200 fect has been subtracted from each result. Mr. Reeves assures that this more than sufficient allowance for the probable error. the same places sometimes many seven observations were taken with the Watkin aneroids. Combining these results with abont half dozen G.T.S. values, bave very good series control observations for the Watkin aneroids, from which the rest the altitudes, and the differences altitude mentioned the text, are obtained. Both aneroids invari- ably but consistently underestimated the height, doubtless due the fact that owing our great mean elevation during five months they had kept constantly closed (i.e. out action), and that never gave them more than half minute error has been averaged and allowed for, but all odd feet have been cut off, that the results are given throughout round figures, not believe that barometric hypsometric method determination can relied upon mountainous country. Most the altitudes determined are given brackets. the case the level which the various glaciers are stated descend, must that, owing the accumulation moraine stuff the snout, often impossible tell exactly how far the ice itself actually extends. rule the G.T.S mistakes heavily morained ice for terra firma.
indebted Prof. Garwood for naming some geological specimens, for the loan plane-table, and for much valuable advice
before left England.
0. tr | ta gr for the thi cal. tu dis whi emi top whi fort Jou com
THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL—DISCUSSION. 389
Before the paper, the (Mr. Freshfield, Vice-President) said: paper read to-night explorations the Himalaya. Since only two months ago that had very interesting paper from Dr. Workman his explorations the Himalaya, may seem you somewhat soon return the same region. may point out, will not say excuses, but reasons why should find ourselves paying more frequent attention the mountainous portions the globe. exploration on, the level, comparatively level, regions are naturally the soonest exhausted, and adventurers turn tae unexplored regions, either the snows the Poles the snows the Peaks. another might allege: that the Himalaya term which covers ex- ceedingly wide tract country. not impute any Fellow present any lack intimate knowledge the Himalaya, but but recollect that this hall was asked, when went Kangchenjunga few years ago, whether had been treading the track Sir Martin Conway. Now, the distance between Kangchenjunga and the scene Sir Martin Conway’s travels equivalent that between the Gross Carinthia and Mont Perdu the heart the Pyrenees. Therefore, though may talking about the Himalaya, are not talking about the same region. Dr. paper description district the centre the Himalaya, roughly speaking, north Agra. you look for your atlases, you will find just the west that long green caterpillar that crawls along the back India, the native state Nepal.
With regard the author the paper, does not require any introduction this audience. must doubly welcome, first the son father who, when His late Government found themselves inadequate support the great Antarctic Expedition, made possibility, and secondly, because already know Dr. Longstaff here. published paper the Journal February, 1907, his previous Himalayan journey company with Mr. Sherring. The present expedition is, should remind you, the the proposal, the un- fortunately unsuccessful proposal, that was made Majesty’s present Govern- ment, that expedition should sent, cost the nation, but entirely the cost those who were undertaking it, explore the neighbourhood Mount Everest, and ascertain the accessibility the mountain the world. When the present Cabinet refused leave that expedition, the members the Alpine Club who were prepared undertake diverted their thoughts some- more modest kind, and out the journey which will now call upon Dr. Longstaff give you
After the paper, Mr. have listened with very great pleasure the graphic description which Dr. Longstaff has given Himalayan district, one the most graphic descriptions have ever had this sure have all followed his adventures with the keenest iuterest, and that only interpreting the sentiments every here present saying that have thoroughly enjoyed his lecture and the most beautiful series photographs which has put before to-night. regret that since are pre- eminently Early Closing Association, Dr. Longstaff has been unable give the solid results his journey, the mass observations, geographical and topographical, which and his have made. However, remember what Sir Murchison said forty years ago, when first read paper before the Society. them your adventures, and print your results.” And fortunately shall have the advantage reading early number the Journal the full results this remarkable expedition. Dr. Longstaff and his companions have done very work, and they have been fortunate exploit, which may perhaps more appreciated the Alpine
r 8 T is 16 n cs ri- ey rer ve 8 10 ten ical vice
390 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION
Club than here, the conquest That mountain has two the first place, has been triangulated, and therefore there can dispute its height; and, the second place, one the historical, perhaps should rather say one the legendary, peaks India, one those great pinnacles everlasting snow which look down upon the heated inhabitauts the plains, and are associated them with the Abode Deity. sure shall also interpret the sense this meeting, express our keen sympathy with Dr. companions, Major Bruce, who has done more, perhaps, than any man for Himalayan exploration his training the Gurkhas, and also with Mr. for the unfortunate, though happily temporary accidents, which prevented them both from taking part that crowning mercy, the ascent Trisul.
Dr. Longstaff has, like all Himalayan travellers, had suggest corrections the topographical detail Survey maps. have said Himalayan travellers, but might have dropped the adjective, for all mountaineers the same Napoleon the Great was the founder European cartography the political sense, General Dufour was the founder scientific mountain cartography. Swiss Survey the only one which extensive alterations have not had made since the snows came explored mountaineers. Twenty-five years ago, when mountaineers first went India, they doubt, some them, ex- pressed criticisms They were misunderstood, and certain amount antagonism was excited between surveyors and climbers, that has happily long passed away, and, they sometimes criticize, there are people the world well able appreciate the merits the Indian maps and the difficulties under which they were constructed those who wander among the hitherto inaccessible recesses the mountains. One the first-fruits the cordial understanding that now exists the fact mentioned here some months ago, that the Geological Survey India are undertaking series measurements the movements glaciers, such were first instituted the Alpine Club Europe. There further suggestion should like make—that the idea starting India Himalayan Club, first suggested the Kashmir surveyor, Mr. Johnson, should followed up. Such body might great deal, collecting observations and publishing journal, assist mountaineers; might study the question reaching the highest altitudes. have several suggestions that might make how any attempt should made reach 29,000 feet, but see among the audience friend Mr. Woolley, President the Alpine Club, and will leave that branch the subject him.
notice that the last meeting, when discussed the Himalaya, Dr. Longstaff referred, has again to-night, Mr. Graham’s ascents. These ascents were made too early. years ago they were ridiculed India, and they are still disbelieved many people, whose opinion worthy con- sideration, this country. This was great extent Mr. Graham’s own fault. described his travels without any the precision detail which expected the modern explorer. But was mainly responsible for bringing them before the attention this Society, must confess having felt certain satisfaction finding that the two main grounds upon which they have been disputed have fallen through. One ground was that was impossible climb above 20,000 feet the pace which Mr. Graham said climbed. Dr. Longstaff has climbed faster the same altitude. The second was, that Kabru was inaccessible Now, October last two Norwegians climbed the summit ridge Kabru. With regard these two plucky Norwegians, would add few words, They reached the summit ridge Kabru between the two peaks, but did not either top. They started too late, and they had much step-cutting, and
ad’ the rac tain cone lam have | glaci same differ both scene them trate, Kame Their one the have Nanda had rocky and
before action feet imbed ridge few
did mountains, and one found instead that the glacier went down the other side
disappeared round the corner the way the Gadmenthal. That, course,
and
THE HIMALAYA GARHWAL—DISCUSSION. 391
time prevented them. They climbed apparently 23,800 23,900 feet. But
not fear that going trouble you with any discussion records. was born before records were invented, and old mountaineer may give advice his younger friends, would strongly recommend them follow Dr. example—not insist too much records, think more getting the tops their peaks, and less getting higher than their rivals. For record mountaineering is, after all, very fleeting possession, very transitory joy. The spirit the Alpine Club has never been, may say so, one self- advertisement jealousy; bas rather been one which might expressed
the words (slightly altered) living poet, the Poet Laureate the English race, Mr. Rudyard Kipling—
And one shall climb for money, and one shall climb for fame, But each for the joy the climbing.”
And would add, for the memory after-years.
will now ask Dr. companion, Mr. Mumm, address us.
Mr. Mumm: There are two things wish say persons about moun- taineering Garhwal first, they should take the precaution being somewhere between twenty-eight and thirty-five years age, and, secondly, they should concentrate, and not try cover too much ground. was largely due neglect the first these points that did little climbing the first part journey; was disregard the second which led none doing very much the second stage it. course, new country which one not likely return to, very tempting try see much possible, and lam not sure that did not get much pleasure from our actual wanderings Ishould have done had wandered less and climbed more. But you cannot both ways. the Alps you can have both ways. You can over glacier passes traverse the tops need never sleep two nights the hotel. But when you have got carry your hotel about with you, different matter. There magnificent field Garhwal for mountain travel both kinds. For the wanderer there are the great glaciers, all abounding superb and many still wholly unknown and surprises. They are most them very accessible; indeed, their moraines are almost the only places Garhwal which you get decent place walk. for the climbing they are simply limitless; but you want climb, you must, said, concen- trate, and you must not yield too much the spell the great giants. think Kamet was our party rather will the wisp. Our Italian guides, the Brocherels, were always pining the top something: they didn’t trouble themselves whether was 23,000 21,000 feet, nor whether had name not. Their attitude was, Here are the mountains: they are big, they are difficult, has been them; what more can anybody want?” think this attitude the one most likely lead successful climbing the Himalaya. should like nothing better than return Garhwal that frame mind, and Ihave beautiful programme for next visit. should not near Kamet Nanda Devi; there would lots climbing, and should only shift camp one day’s march each time. should finish the glacier above Gameali, distance, and had very curious experience. was very much one started from the Furca Hotel explore the Rhone glacier, relying map showed that the upper part the glacier was surrounded circle
nt ble cal is to the eave Dr. con- fault.
392 EXPEDITION
what you find when you the Rhone glacier; not prepared guarantee that the same thing happens with the glacier above but that what looked like. had shelter from snowstorm for long time, and when got the point from which bebaviour the glacier was visible, was too late any further, and that little topographical problem had left unsolved. have referred it, partly because good illus. what was saying about the interest attaching glacier exploration these regions, partly also because the one interesting thing that found out all myself. clearing that problem will the last the programme next time Garhwal. Only afraid there never will next time.
Mr. regret not able make any important comment the very interesting description which have listened, have never greater height than 18,500 feet, and have never suffered directly from effects diminished atmospheric pressure, whereas believe that the serious effects supply oxygen with man good training, about 20,000 feet. problem with regard the height attainable pedestrian has very interesting stage. Taking the highest point hitherto 24,000 feet, Dr. Workman, who gave address here some weeks ago, seems think that, owing the great loss strength and vitality due the difficulty the limit will reached, even easy within the next 3000 4000 feet. Dr. Longstaff more hopeful, and his party did not seem affected anything like the same degree Dr. party. But Dr. Longstaff will probably admit that order reach the higher summits—say 26,000 feet and upwards—it will necessary have two The first party, lightly equipped practicable, will complete the final ascent; the second party, also composed experts, will the first party far possible, and that point keep them supplied with necessaries, and relieve them all labour except the actual labour locomotion. will interesting experiment these lines can tried mountain presenting very great climbing difficulties. Dr. photographs were very beautiful and instructive, and some the most striking views were those the gorges what wonderfully effective cutting instrument mountain torrent is. have listened the description this evening with the greatest interest ard pleasure, and very glad have this opportunity congratulating Dr. notable ascent Trisul.
Sir Tuomas have nothing but admiration express for the and the ability which Dr. Longstaff has shown this very
expedition, and nothing but admiration for those photographs, which incidentally prove most conclusively that certainly did ascend the summit Trisul. But there just one point which should like make and isa which was suggested me. was leaving the the this afternoon, and passing through the Burlington Areade, that possible, and has always been impossible, for the Survey Department India undertake the topographical survey such remote regions have been visited climbers into our service order obtain certain scientific observations would the utmost value future. need not remind you that barometrical observations for altitude are really very little value. not say that they value, because certainly the absence any other method altitudes, they are better than bu! observation taken
clea had phi )
staf
th tu 4 th: obs the pre suc pea wer lect tha and Oud phe do 1 mal said
are
mint,
rically,
that say, observed altitude from known height, far more con- clusive observation for finding the altitude distant peak than any barometric determination. one those peaks the Himalayas which has been exceedingly well fixed. know precisely its position, and its altitude almost exactly; say almost because there are certain corrections, certain weaknesses about those observations, which require eliminating, and the greatest weakness the fact that never know exactly what tricks refraction may playing high altitudes. Now, observation taken from low station high and its alti- tude fixed that way, the error which may refraction considerable. If, the other hand, the observation can taken back from that high peak the point from where the observation was taken, that source error entirely eliminated. Not only eliminated, but value for the error induced refraction obtained, which will serve most useful purpose determining the altitude other peaks. Now year year are demanding from explorers and from mountaineers more and more close observation, more scientific application their work than bas been hitherto accorded it. that late years have succeeded getting more. marvellous how men who succeed attaining these great altitudes can ever the amount resolution that necessary order take the persistent and constant observations which are necessary for scientific purposes; but this case must ask them take one more. they will only observe from those high peaks what the angle depression some point from which that angle elevation has been taken, they will doing immense service scientific surveying. think asking this are really not asking very much, for not necessary convey any very heavy instruments the tops peaks for this purpose, that hope future that amongst Himalayan climbers may find some who will work hand-in-hand with the professional surveyors India, and give real assistance their observations. Dr. Longstaff referred the ascent Kabru Mr. Graham. Now, there was never any doubt whatsoever the minds any professional surveyors that Mr. Graham did make very notable ascent, and did succeed attaining altitude which hai probably never been reached before. The doubt was whether had ever succeeded reaching that particular peak which have reached, and the points which the doubt arose were not exactly those described the Chairman. was here when Mr. lecture was read, and conviction was that had not quite succeed identifying his own position. quite clear from what have heard to-night that, whatever point reached, did not succeed identifying Mount Everest, and said that found elsewhere, looking round him, that the trigono- metrical survey India was all wrong, and that there were mountains where there ought valleys, and valleys where there ought mountain ranges, there still remains mind some explanation necessary for this very extraordinary phenomenon. possible that, whilst failed recognize the peaks around him from Kabru, was actually the point supposed himself not know whether these years that doubt will ever satisfactorily cleared up, but would have been those days immense advantage him had possessed what Dr. apparatus, and photographer capable illustrating the fact that was the top the peak. have nothing more say, except join with others conzratulating Dr. Long- staff what certainly very remarkable and will very memorable Mr. propose call Sir Martin Conway, but would first make one remark reply Sir Holdich’s criticism with regard what just said about trigonometrical altitudes. describing them indisputable, meant
No.
think you will all agree
us ng, pa ied eks an’s rher ties, ent; far lieve sting very and have and his Lergy hich trene k » to- office that im- India visited whiel
394 MOUNTAINEERING EXPEDITION HIMALAYA
relatively tinal. must point out that twenty years ago, after consultation with Mr. Whymper, criticized the determination 29002 feet given for the highest mountain the world, and suggested that until had been measured from some points where the effects refraction were likely Jess serious thau the plains India, its height could not considered absolutely fixed.
Now, want ask Sir Martin Conway tell something about the so- called nieve You may that two months ago Dr. Workman described having seen the Himalaya series snow-pinnacles similar those which have been very minutely described Sir Martin Conway the not know Sir Martin aware it, but they were seen before him another South American traveller, who not only found collection those extraordinary snow-pillars, but one them which served pedestal for the frozen carcass horse, what may call cheval perché. the unfortunate animal had perished the snow the winter. The traveller question was Dr. Darwin, hope Sir Martin Conway will able tell whether the phenomena described Dr. Workman seem him similar those which saw the Andes, and also whether accepts Dr. Workman’s description their causes: first wind, and then sunshine. would suggest that, these snow-pillars exist other regions than the Andes, should find some English and less far-fetched term describe them. That nieve penitente was derived from fanciful resemblance procession white-robed penitents.*
Sir Conway: this late hour, afraid would impossible very deeply into this question nieve penitente, and think should hardly justified referring all, were not that one the photographs, taken, believe, Dr. Longstafi’s former expedition, there seemed some appearance rudimentary nieves the foreground. saw examples the Karakorams, and have heard none observed the Himalayas except Dr. Workman the Nun Kun range. almost only, far know, South America, and within certain definite limits latitude, that they occur. are certainly phenomenon confined within regions low latitude, and they have nothing whatever with the wind. they were caused winds, they would have been found polar regions. are caused undoubtedly the melting relatively vertical sun. impossible describe very briefly and without illustration the manner their origin, but has been completely and accounted One peculiarity that they have that the major axis their horizontal section lies always approximately east and west, unless there should mountains that shade them from the morning evening sun, when their axes may somewhat twisted towards south-east south-west. was observing this twist and the cause for that first opened eyes the true origin nieve penitente the explanation gave has since been generally accepted.
Prof. spite the early-closing rule mentioned the President, cannot refrain from adding congratulations those which have already been offered Dr. Longstaff and his companions. There are many points great interest the paper. will to-night allude only one these, namely, the character the valleys below the snow-line, shown the screen. think that every one must agree that they are essentially water-cut gorges, and that ice had little nothing
with their formation. Again, that stream which appeared cross water- shed seems point unmistakably phenomenon that noticed also thie
For observations this phenomenon the Andes and Kilimanjaro and discussion its origin, see Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde Berlin, 1908, No. and also the present number.
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1908,
FURTHER EXPLORATION THE TIAN-SHAN MOUNTAINS. 395
Sikhim Himalayas, namely, the evidence elevation the whole mountain recent date. The rivers here also appear have received additional power enable them cut those wonderful gorges, some which, think the author said, were 1700 feet deep. ‘The fact that they have not been widened atmospheric agents points conclusively their very recent origin. The retreat the glaciers shown also this district another point great interest. The presence hanging” valleys occurring the main valleys themselves most suggestive phenomenon, and one which recently called attention the Alps. very instructive find the same thing here, proving again that glaciers must, till recently, have protected their beds from the downward erosion water such took place the valley the termination the this late hour will only once more add congratulations this very admirable expedition.
Mr. have had very interesting paper, followed interesting and important discussion, which various points scientific interest have been raised. have already informally expressed the thanks the Society the reader the paper, Dr. Longstaff.
Dr. afraid have not made clear that was not the leader the expedition. all three worked together the best our abilities, but any one deserves the title will only mention one other reference the irreconcilability his maps with the actual configuration the country applies the Rishi valley and not anything that saw from Kabru. would add that our largest cameras were quarter-plate size, every ounce has considered when coolies are not available.
FURTHER EXPLORATION THE TIAN-SHAN MOUNTAINS Dr. GOTTFRIED MERZBACHER.
rigour winter has for some time interrupted scientific pursuits aud forced take quarters here. make use the opportunity communicate some particulars respecting the course expedition down date.
departure from Munich was made April 17, 1907, company with H.R.H. Prince Arnulf Bavaria, who, chiefly for the sake the big game abounding their valleys, had determined travel the Tian-Shan. The impulse the journey came chiefly from the Prince. The invitation join him with which honoured was, however, all the more grateful inasmuch had for some quite consider- able time been cherishing the wish follow researches the Tian-Shan, and most generous manner His Royal Highness rendered the prosecution scientific pursuits Un- happily His Royal Highness, after happy hunting expedition pursued without adverse incident any consequence, and after his return complete health Europe, succumbed Venice, October last year, inflammation the lungs. The early and unexpected death
Dated Kulja, February 1908,”
n if to ’ yr. th ut ily vist te ; ent, een rest nust hing uter- the
EXPLORATION THE TIAN-SHAN MOUNTAINS.
noble patron casts dark shadow expedition which was entered with such joyful expectations. His Royal Highness and passed into the heart Asia way the Caucasus, Transcaspia, and Turkestan. Tashkent foregathered with the other partners the expedition: Kurt Leichs Francis Kostner, from Corvara Tyrol, guide, who had already
Rockinger taxidermist Francis Borgar, from Eisenerz Styria, Royal Highness’s hunter. From Tashkent travelled through Semirechensk Issik Kul lake, and thence Kulja, where the expedition was organized whence took its departure. The reasons inducing make third journey into the Shan mountains rest the consideration that, however rich the booty
observation heretofore gathered me, yet, closer
seemed supply but inadequate basis for investigations into
the history the more recent development the mountains. the
contrary, urgent necessity rather impelled draw within the
compass observations the eastern parts the central Tian-Shan,
including the chains stretching farther the east. The past year
was devoted the first part this programme. The expedition
chiefly occupied itself with the exploration the river-systems
the two greatest mountain rivers draining the northern slope the
central Tian-Shan,—Kok-Su and Agias. The valleys these two mountain rivers, which, after flowing very considerable length longitudinal valleys, suddenly bend round and pass into transverse valleys, delivering their waters into the Tekes, had hitherto fallen
more within the scope sporting circles than within that scientific
explorers. English and more particularly Anglo-Indian hunters, allured
the abundance game these valleys, especially the extra-
ordinary size the ibex and wild sheep these regions, had repeatedly
picked them out for the arena their sport.
expedition, the hydrographic system the two rivers and
their most important tributaries were now investigated far their
highest sources, including the glaciers, hitherto totally unknown, lying
the valleys their sources. this investigation special attention
was paid the structure and the composition the mountains, also
the causes the peculiar valley formation. Not wishing forestall
the comprehensive report which left abeyance till after the close
the expedition, should like here, respect the two river regions,
only state brief that extent they fall short the glaciers the great longitudinal valleys, Sary-Dokhas, Inylchek, ete. The biggest them not reach beyond miles long. Their number and
diffusion, the other hand, are very great. particular parts, too,
the region, glaciation notable. The total extent territory covered
firn and ice far larger than had expected. This covering lies
FURTHER EXPLORATION TIAN-SHAN MOUNTAINS. 397
particularly thick the upper regions the headwaters the Agias, also the region the chains parting the Agias from the winding course the middle Kok-Su. Some the glaciers investigated are distinguished uncommonly complicated structure. Such, are those the great valley the Kopr-Sai, tributary the Agias, and those the Khaptu-Su valley belonging the same river-system.
With respect the geological structure the territory examined, confine myself the statement that, might expected from the already published geological and results former expedition, fundamental deviations indeed structure and geological composition come light that part the Tian-Shan recently brought within the sphere investigation, compared with the regions before traversed. Yet withal there spring into notice substantial differences concerning both the structure the mountains and the distribution the different kinds rock. this part also the Tian-Shan the kernel the mountain chain purely sedimentary one, and the highest watershed between north and south formed metamorphosed, presumably Lower Carboniferous limestones (marble, dolomite). the system the watershed, besides, striking parallelism structure becomes more and more evident. There here, the other far thicker distribution certain rocks, particularly quartz, porphyries, and related rocks, and part also the younger porphyries, than the western central parts the mountains. Leaving out account the great part which, the formation the thick series crystalline slates, must attributed processes, the influence contact-meta- morphism exerted the eruptive rocks the surrounding masses rock is, accordingly, beyond comparison more important. The participa- tion, however, the granite the structure the mountains, especially the interior chains, here falls substaniially short that obtaining the dominant conditions the part. The gene- rally steep uplift the layers and the predominance the north- easterly trend constitute here, too, remarkable characteristics the structure.
unexpected distribution and uncommon thickness are attained the recent formations (red conglomerates, clays, marls, aud sand- stones), characteristic the Central Asiatic mountains, the upper territory, where they form independent chains rising over feet. Till, however, have extended still farther east observations these sediments, refrain from hazarding conclusive judgment respecting the mode formation. All the same, should like even here point out that seems mistake for any one generalize too dogmatically this matter. The more occupied the examination these formations, the more borne the conviction that they are not explained from common
’ j vd g all of of of ies
398 FURTHER EXPLORATION THE TIAN-SHAN MOUNTAINS.
the contrary, the more become persuaded reference the mode formation these deposits, and the face itself their very varied character, that the deposits piled the interior basins the mountains must distinguished from those deposited the river-valleys, and these, again, from the recent formations deposited along the edge the mountain system. Through extension observations the eastern chains, hope position throw more light this difficult problem.
unusual extent and good preservation are the traces the diluvial Ice age many parts, visited me, the mountain system. Convincing evidence has also come hand favour the opinion form rly pronounced (“An Expedition into the Tian-Shan that, respect also these mountains, several larger phases revolution, with intervals periods retrogression, must assumed. Mus-tamas valley, there lies over well-preserved old moraines diluvial gompholite; above this again thick moraine, which its turn next covered more recent and above these again are piled masses moraine the most recent Ice age. Saksan-Teke (tributary the Kok-su) valley consolidated old moraine was found, ground smooth advancing ice later period. the Agias valley seen beautiful example the sliding younger moraine over older, whereby sand-clay deposit, intercepted between them, got dislodged extraordinary manner.
Similar demonstrations offer themselves plenty.
Altogether, would not easy find spot where, manner more convincing than here, the explorer is, step step, reminded how great part the present configuration the mountain system due powerful climatic oscillations, and how great moisture and great drought have repeatedly alternated one with the other. Only under such conditions are satisfactorily explained the peculiarities the valley this region-—its diversity, its manifold ramifications. these conditions observation was specially directed.
the conclusion labours the two great river-systems mentioned, turned anew the great Musart valley with view filling certain gaps knowledge this region. The more important lateral valleys, whose acquaintance had missed making former occasion, were now looked up. The glacier system, again, the uppermost basin the valley enclosing wonderful ice-currents exceedingly rich articulation, could this time more minutely examined and sketched. this way shall also enabled adjust statements made respecting the course certain glacier valleys radiat- ing from the central massif, embodied former report travels Expedition into the Tian-Shan Mountains”) and the map accompanying it.
the course and towards the conclusion the year’s expedition,
the ext wil tha can me! of . mit obs int rul sta | mo onl tic All cip pat the elk
h,
FURTHER EXPLORATION THE TIAN-SHAN MOUNTAINS. 399
the opportunity has presented itself several times turning greater attention than heretofore the structure the secondary chains extending from the river Tekes.
Unfortunately, the labours the expedition were encroached upon and retarded uncommon degree the weather the past summer and autumn, wet and unfavourable beyond all precedent. Out four summers passed Tian-Shan this last was the most will fair idea the kind weather dealt out remark that the course six months had but nine days completely free from precipitation. Under almost exclusively west winds there came almost every day rain snowfall. The whole period glacier- melting reckoned hardly six weeks. the beginning July most the glacier currents were readily crossable, and the middle August the water from the melted ice offered any obstruction. Frequently the middle summer were transported into truly winter landscape. middle September winter set the mountains his stern rule, longer subject any relaxation, rule which extended far down into the foothills.
will understood how, under such conditions, there can talk retreat the glaciers. Almost everywhere the glaciers betokened stability some cases inclination advance. needs few more such years induce general advance the glaciers the mountain system. Exceptions from these conditions could observed only the territories the upper waters the Kurtai and the Jirgalan, where the glaciers were decisively vigorous retreat. Further par- ticulars this subject reserve for the later comprehensive report.
The abnormal weather did not rest confined the high mountains. All over Semirechensk unusually heavy and continuous precipitations were experienced, with markedly lowered temperature. situations, Varynkol (Okhatnishi) and other places, the corn could aot led in. many parts Turkestan, too, increase pre- cipitation has for number years been observed, especially the past year. The following data owe the kindness the director the Tashkent Astronomico-Physical Observatory, Colonel Ossipoff
Mean annual precipitation during the ten years
ending Dec, 31, 1906. In 1907 Sarmarkand ,.. one 13195 inches ... 19°528 inches
The figures the two last entries the above table cover only eleven months, the exclusion December.
appears from the notable investigations Berg, the surface the Aral, also Lake Balkhash, steadily rising. Further data have since been obtained demonstrating the continuation this ascending
1 C ly 8 is is iS a)
400
THE OBSERVATION DESERT SAND-DUNES.
movement, which involves also the Ala-Kul lake. may, assumed that for Central Asia there has set the beginning period great precipitation, climatic oscillation, the duration and importance which nothing definite can course yet said, Here Kulja, where compelled put for some time till again possible travel, the course the winter abnormal. began about the middle October, full month, namely, before its usual time, and continues ever since with uninterrupted rigour and with extra- ordinarily abundant snowfall. The staff the Belgian Mission Station, which has now been planted here for sixteen years, have memory any winter all approaching this one magnitude snowfall. ‘The snowy mantle has now thickness feet, and since New Year the temperature oscillates between —4° and Fahr., with extraordinarily violent and frequent barometric oscillations. lists ought this time quite peculiarly interesting data.
Dr. Leuchs having, the beginning December, begun his return journey, hope, the beginning March, the arrival new
geological coadjutor, Dr. Groeber, start once more for the mountains,
THE OBSERVATION DESERT SAND-DUNES. VAUGHAN CORNISH,
following suggestions for observations desert sand-dunes have been formulated reply the letter intending traveller North have various times been called upon for such notes travellers proceeding Australian, Indian, and other deserts, and
occurred me, therefore, that such suggestions might use other Fellows the Society.
think the most pressing thing dune-study the measurement trausversely series ridges sufficient size called sandhills, such that the lower layers are compacted weight, and possibly moisture, although devoid foreign binding material, such as, redeposited carbonate lime. The point ascertain comprising many ridges will give average ratio—
Length from crest crest P = app nately ). Height from trough crest
the Geographical Journal, January, 1900, will seen that found this hold for les dunes elementaires (as, think, French observers call them) when averaged up, this being the same ration for each the well-known ripples loose surface sand.
several such cross-sections can obtained different localities,
the firm secu
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cros grot
pap rid, resi con for par
pho dun
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Tea
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THE OBSERVATION DESERT SAND-DUNES. 401
the results cannot fail valuable whether the figures con- firmatory otherwise, provided there sufficient number con- secutive ridges included each group. The amount time one’s disposal being always controlling factor the work traveller, would lay down the following rule for these measurements, viz. include many ridges possible, and measure with less minute- ness rather than use time refined measurements short series waves
good check this measurement long series take the cross-measurement two consecutive waves (three ridges) the same group number different places and average them up.
Second only interest the above are the following points, viz.
Longitudinal extension.—In Sindh there are longitudinal dunes formed, doubt not, wind action partly consolidated sand con- taining some carbonate lime derived from addition the processes for forming longitudinal structures described paper Snow Drifts Journal, August, 1902), there has also, think, Sindh, been process building long continuous ridge filling between, and thus joining the comparatively short residual longitudinal ridges left the cutting through the semi- consolidated transverse ridges. would good plan look out for such structures, and repetition such processes other deserts, particularly where there some material make the sand more particularly the lower layers.
There also observed, and more particularly described and photographed, the longitudinal arrangement consecutive crescentic dunes Also, understand that west the Nile there tendency for the dune massif elongate itself indefinitely the direction the wind. what one ought expect, the eddy produced obstruction being always much longer than the width height, and the transverse arrangement being only the wave- structure, which necessarily comparatively small ef. the elongated sandy shoals accumulated sheltered positions rivers, and their transverse ridging current-waves and current- ripples (such are described paper the Geographical Journal, August, more particular observation these elongated dune massifs, and the process which elongation accomplished, are certainly desirable.
The third point which would draw attention the relation dunes atmospheric and ground moisture. Water often easily obtainable the foot large dune. Near the Nile delta this, found, was often the cause the dune, sand-drift being slackened where the sand was wetted. Elsewhere, the French Sahara, have read that the moisture effect, not cause, the dune. The sand- hill undoubtedly absorbs rain, and, think, holds the moisture its
1 n CS rs } oh
402 THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM.
lower layers. The dew effects observed upon the dunes are very remarkable, even when there has been rain for weeks, and for the rapid evaporation the day, one tempted think that dew-ponds might formed, the porous chalk downs Such moisture the lower part the dune, but, readily evaporating the surface, allows the top layers redistributed the daily breeze. strong and continuous winds remove the dry and loose surface too rapidly, erosion forms are produced the com- pacted underpart. Thus from several points view the relation blown sand moisture worth studying.
desire draw attention the exaggerated effect certain storms transporting sand, and even apparently holding the finer particles suspension. This may probably due electrified atmosphere. have found experiment that sand, though heavy, readily and violently moved electrification, account, suppose, the smallness the particles. have not myself gone much further into the interesting but difficult question the effect electricity upon the transport sand. may that such winds are responsible some deserts for much the transport sand, whilst the ordinary breezes most the modelling the sand-dunes.
The rate movement dunes is, course, interesting, but unfortunately traveller can seldom deal with it.
Finally, whatever described should photographed, and the photographs should, whenever possible, taken low morning light low light shadow and relief; the morning, order avoid the sandy haze the later day.
THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM.
Captain return Russia 1901, after his prolonged absence Tibet, put the finishing touch his exploration work compiling most valuable scientific report the lands through which had passed. The following pages are translation that part his narrative which deals with the expedi- tion’s adventures from the time its leaving the Tsaidam the journey south till reached
During March, 1900, made its way westwards along the northern bank the lake Koko-nor, and, crossing the eastern reached April the fortified post the Baron-Dsassak (longitude and latitude 36° 55” and 97° 47”; height, feet above sea-level). Here was formed serve the purpose
Translated Captain Lindsay, 2nd King Edward’s Own Gurkha Rifles the Geoyraphical Journal, 19, 576, summary account this Expedition, 1899-1901, also Captain Kozloff.
q of a onw: most m d accu q to px and and came ‘ char Acri As, The zent dign inste mut the cara or ti and Tibe felt ours then ever of th
OSC
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ian
THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM. 403
base while Tibet, and here camel transport was The journey onwards related Captain Kozloff
Narrative.
With the expedition’s arrival Tsaidam the curtain may said have come down the first act. For whole year had lived amongst the most part peaceful and good natured—learning about their country, studying their mode for transport using camels, animal which Russians soon became accustomed the line march, especially commanded experienced officers. were compelled part company with these animals their stead possess ourselves bull yaks, beasts live the mountains and tablelands Tibet, where exist nationalities their manners and customs the primitive Mongols their fierce and obstinate yaks are camels.
Savage nature, the bull yak, when the line march, camp, when always trying find opportunity goring his neighbour, regardless whether the latter bull like himself, horse, human being. The worst
characters among them are recognizable the broken points their horns.
mountainous country they are slow travellers (from versts hour, less), while they carry only the load average-sized camel. As, addition this, yaks are more subject epidemic diseases than camels they often prove more expensive mode transport. The travelling with them are greater than when using the deservedly so— ship the desert.”
transport animal, the bull khainik stands considerably higher. more gentle and tractable, more used narrow footpaths, and certain extent dignified. Consequently preserves its strength throughout the day’s march instead wasting when leaving camp, yak usually does, uselessly about from one side the road the other. The khainik is, course, mucli more valuable, about thirty roubles, while transport yak can generally bought for ten; that say, three times expensive the yak. camel caravan can loaded more expeditiously than bull caravan, the men the escort, divided into pairs, can work independently, and soon get the caravan ready. ‘This impossible with bulls. Each animal has held one men, while its load has lifted high the same least four, two either The loading obstinate animals takes quite five minutes, aud requires double the usual number men, while the baggage suffers
Having left the bulky and heavier loads our Tsaidam packed our Tibetan reduced the smallest limits, small boxes, bags, and wallets. The ideal load for yak pair ammunition boxes weighing, including the felt lining, poods. But even after reducing our allowance the utmost, found with thirty-five loads, carry took forty the majority them being khainiks. Besides myself and immediate assistants, the personnel
ld. approximately. Khainik, cross between bull yak and cow.
With khas, yaks lose their appetites, saliva pours out their mouths, and eventually their drop
Camels are loaded differently. the tsok” and gentle pulling
the leading rope, they lie down, and the load need not lifted high off the ground.
’ rT y in Ost ng di- the ied 77)
404 THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM.
the expedition consisted twelve grenadiers and cossacks, the bull transport, which they were unaccustomed, four local Mongols were engaged the Dadai and Chakdoor, from the village the Dsun-dsassak, and the other two, Hardy and Jeroy, from the village the Baron-dsassak. The first our native companions, Dadai, had previously accom- panied Prjevalsky guide and Tibetan interpreter, when returning from
the Tsaidam his third journey Central Asia. addition these four Mongols, commandeered Chinaman called Li, who knew Tibetan. was fine-looking, powerful man, and, when not smoking opium, appeared well abie
climb the mountains Tibet. The party was thus brought strength twenty men.
Besides the above, also took Ivanoff (who was charge our the Tsaidam) far the lakes the upper Hwang and two selected Mongols escort him the return journey. did this, feeling certain that, addition the boat, would have take back large quantity skins mammals and whatever else might collect, and therefore took, besides the bulls, three transport camels and three ponies—one for each them.
Meanwhile the rays the spring sun were daily becoming more powerful. The shrub and grassy vegetation, coming life again, beautified the bleak vale the the air, which was fragrant with the aroma fresh vegetation, the buzzing insects and the twittering swallows, soaring high above the mud-walled fort, never ceased for days together. were attracted the south, towards the mountains whose dark blue gorges were becoming more clearly visible. one those nullahs our hermits and Afutin, who were charge the camels—had for some time
past taken their quarters. addition the Mongol shepherd engaged for the period the stay the their paucity numbers was supplemented the dogs, which had been our faithful companions from the
day our start from Altaisk. take the latter’s place the Tibetan caravan, bought from neighbouring Mongol huge Tibetan mastiff called Garza.
the middle May had completed our arrangements for the onward journey, and the 17th that pleasant spring month was chosen for our start upon the long and route. daybreak were all Loads, and men filled the courtyard the fortress, while Russian, Mongolian, and Chinese shouts intermingled break the morning silence. addition those who were setting out, large crowd extraneous people had assembled, some whom worked hard and were useful us, while others chattered lazily and were hindrance. The loading the bulls was commenced but how different dealing with camels! Several the obstinate brutes lay down others plunged about, and, having broken away from their attendants, never rested till they had thrown their loads. spent long time loading that narrow, confined space, and was
not till noon—the very hottest hour the day—that were last able leave the settlement and wend our way into the open valley. Then were able breathe more freely and look around After two three hours’ going, the
caravan, divided into three sections, was maintaining proper order and moving steadily southwards. Looking back, all took leave the village, which seemed
now near and dear, and above which could clearly scen the logical station, well the Russian ensign fluttering the breeze.
Muravieff, who was doomed many days solitude, was standing one the flat roofs watching the fast disappearing column.
Beyond the rugged, flinty waste which rises gradually towards the hills, the Burkhan-Buddha range towers upwards, and one its nullahs—Nomokhun
AT.36°N. Snow Astron Joma. A % acco
PART EASTERN TIBET*
Barun Zasak Met Sta 98°
Routes he ANKaznakoff Astronomical Monastery
Pass
Scale Miles
20 80 100 4 Nat Scale |: 4,000,000 or 63 stat miles «1! inch
gonchen
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LAT 29°N LON 98° E
This map was prepared for vol. the Journal, which for the different spelling the present translation.
its .§ ho Lat <0 rd
406 THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM.
name—we had arranged camp. Close small stream wound its gathering strength its onward journey from the bubbling, murmuring brooks which tumbled into it, and instead dust and saline deposit, trod underfoot soft patches green grass, and began hear the monotonous cry the partridge (Caccabis chukar), wild pigeon, and other feathered
The name Burkhan-Buddha, adopted from the time Prjevalsky’s first journey the name given the comparatively small (in extent) range* the southern end the eastern Tsaidam. From this shut-in Central Asian these mountains have the appearance solid uniform-shaped wall, supporting height 17,000 feet fairly flat summit (only places does reach the line eternal snows), where the streams rise which tumble down either side.
The foot the hills the northern side 10,500 feet above the sea, but the southern side nearly 13,500 feet, though measuring scarcely versts the top. both sides the nullahs are stony, wild looking, places very narrow and dark, and, thanks the scarcity water, bare and bleak. few tiny rivulets, issuing from the hills, bury themselves beneath the surface the ground, appearing again the bottom the nullahs springs wells after their subterranean journey. ‘These hills are composed clear granite, with admixture clase, quartz, bisilicate, and also tonalit, gneiss-granite, gneiss,
stone, limestone with streaks pyroxene and epidote, calcareous spar, quartz, clay, sandstone, and slate.
the way mammals were found wild yaks, wild goats sheep, antelopes, marmots, hare, skunks, foxes, wolves, lynx, panther, and Tibetan And birds there were white and brown vultures (Gyps himalayensis and monachus), the lammergeyer (Gypaétus barbatus), the golden eagle daphanea), the hawk alaudarius, owls, brown owls, and occasionally even also the black raven (Corvus the Alpine jackdaw (Fregilus graculus, Alpinus), wild pigeon (Columba two kinds hill turkey wild partridge chukar), mountain finches, jays humilis), blackbirds cincla saxatilis), Accé ntor fulve scens, Motacilla, Budyte s citreola, Pratincola maura, red-tails, peewits, martins, hill swallows, and many others.
The flowers only begin bloom the beginning summer. entering the Nomokhun nullah found, the narrow patches and amidst the thick brush-like grass, just opening out, yellow dandelions and two kinds silverweed the banks the stream were lagotis, and somewhat farther from the water, the bare, dry, stony soil, termopsis; alongside this was the tiny Malcolmia, and the same grassy patches near the rocks, where the full warmth the sun felt, grew the beautiful iris.
Some versts higher the nullab, small re-entrants, came across white potentilla, artemisia, androsace, pink draba, and bright yellow, sweet-smelling gadea. Still higher and damper soil were carex, and growing amongst them the small blue gentiana. places the ground was yellow with ranunculus and three sorts iris—two lilac-coloured blue and one yellow.
During the next day’s march, saw growing the more tempting side nullahs clumps very small primula, with pink petals. Here and there amongst these dwarfs towered others, tall and full sap, with greyish-green leaves and
pinky-lilac, sweet-smelling petals. There were various kinds grasses, more
length not more than 100 versts; from the stream Nomokhun-khoto the west the river Egrai-gol the east.
wea the exc and hill day: colle and snak falle had fear got | and amn from cons
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THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM. 407
ranunculus and polygonum, just flower. These were along the bottom the the clay hillsides grew three kinds astragalus, and tiny euphorbia which literally covered the small mounds earth thrown the burrowing marmots. found large quantities the above flora the inny south- west side, and amongst the rocks was found the first and specimen the
Higher the hills came across the Przewalskia tangutica, the former hand- some iris, pretty yellow pedicularis, ranunculus, two three saxifraga. three last, ranunculus, and saxifraga, grew near water. clay, broken was the yellow corydalis just coming into flower, alongside the ephedra and light lilac-coloured soft grassland amongst resplendent primuias was the Adonis The great cold coming every now and then had prevented the gentians and violets from flowering the southern slope the flowers were poorer and less developed, owing the colder mountain air; but the foot the hills the southern side, sheltered places, found one two sweet- smelling stocks
reached the northern foot the Burkhan-Buddha range the first evening, and the second the Noyon-bulak (spring), where had arranged meet the Here made our final preparations, and got together flock some seventy sheep before proceeding further. After passing some nomad Mongols, the expedition reached excellent camping-ground, where grazing was and here decided stay for the best part week, learn more about these hills and get better acquainted with our animals. This comparatively long halt was all the good, accustomed our breathing-organs the For our new companions this was especially necessary, the weakest them this high altitude suffered considerable discomfort the first few days, after which all went well, and were able make numerous excursions the adjacent uninhabited nullahs. The hill flora daily began more and more awaken, and consequently enrich our collection. reaching the hill Laduigin, our indefatigable botanist, seemed rejuvenated, and spent whole days the nullahs, carefully searching them. Kaznakoff, who was also expert collector, amused himself getting together quantity invertebrate specimens, and seemed thoroughly enjoy filling jars and bottles with the various kinds beetles, and which were unknown him, not mention lizards and snakes. was equally his element shooting birds and animals peculiar Tibet. fact, with our arrival the hills mantle energy seemed have fallen upon the members the party, and was vain purpose that the south had loudly called from the Tsaidam’s inhospitable waste.
were still obliged keep our huge, fierce mastiff Garza the chain, for fear its attacking the Mongols, including even its former owners. Since had got know would attack all them, except those the Buriats who now and again wore their national costume. The strength the beast was marvellous. Once when barking excitedly some intruder dragged about after the heavy ammunition-box poods) which had been fastened during the day, pulling from place place. night used let loose, and the Mongols had, consequence, careful where they went.
alas! cloud soon darkened our pastime the surrounding hills, the shape the serious illness our Chinese interpreter. With each day grew thinner and paler, that, much against will, was last compelled send him first the charge the Baron-dsassak, and afterwards when convalescent, his own Fu. discovered later that this invalid (Li, the Chinese called him) was great trouble the dsassak,
AS It ne nha on no an : 10- ay irs i the lee has ro- ra, On LOW the the ind 5 n is hite ing hem and side mast |
408
THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM.
compelling the latter produce whatsoever this licentious Chinaman desired indulge in.
dawn May 27—a clear, frosty morning—we recommenced our march, and nine o’clock had succeeded crossing the Burkhan-Buddha. The ascent the pass was steep and stony, and the top covered with deep layer snow, The height the pass—Nomokhun-dawan name—was, according aneroid, 16,030 feet. The neighbouring peaks, towering one above the other amongst the eternal snows, seemed thousands feet higher. The caravan made time reaching the summit, with the exception one the camels, whicli were obliged lead back and leave its own devices the first flat grazing-ground could find, till our Mongols should return the From the Tsaidam, which was enveloped yellowish-grey haze dust, piercing wind was blowing, and the temperature was Fleecy bits mist, becoming detached from the remainder, wandered amongst the higher peaks, and turning into black, leaden clouds, every now and again burst into sleet. Towards Tibet the weather looked most forbidding. The sky was overcast, and the dark ye!low hilltops, buried the clouds, had the appearance being wrapped Near the summit animal life was visible, and such vegetation grew benumbed with cold. was only when descended the southern side the range that came upon stream, free from ice, whose green banks were look upon. Here found quantities wild-yak bones, and from their enormous size was evident that the animals were unusually large. were not fortunate enough come across any these beasts, though traces large herd the soft clay soil clearly pointed their frequenting the locality. the course the day saw bear, well small flock wild goats sheep.
The following morning found fairly cold our camp Shara-beilchir, the thermometer showing the minimum temperature sunset had been 13°5° below zero. The stream had dried up, leaving glistening icy crust behind it, but nevertheless, after hour two the rays the southern sun began warm us. The onward path lay south-westerly direction towards the Alyk-nor lake, which feeds stream the same name that flows eastwards till its junction with the climbing the next ridge saw large valley, and close wide strip water shining little later the lake itself came into view, and beyond it, the grey distance, the Burla-Abgai hills. the south-east stood out the Amuen- kor range These, like the Burkhan-Buddha, which had just crossed, had covering snow the summit. addition these principal ranves, there were quantities smaller hills running away the south and filling the whole distance Tibet, which here had average height 13,000 15,000 feet.
After couple hours reached the north-east shore the Alyk-nor, where selected soft green patch ground which encamp. Messrs. and Laduigin, taking advantage the fine weather the first day (May 28), went out the lake our boat ascertain its depth. The greatest depth was sajens the steep bank the southern end, the shallowest part being off the low bank the northern end. From the northern shore the lake became gradually deeper for some versts, and only when within verst the southern bank suddenly become shallower again.
The men went out shoot antelopes (Pantholops Hodgsoni and picticauda), which were seen grazing here and there the wide valley. herd wild asses kiang) were seen across the stream opposite our canip, and the other bank the lake was large herd wild yaks. The fabulous quantity wild mammals found everywhere north-east ‘Tibet can accounted for the almost complete absence their worst enemy—man.
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THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM. 409
Birds, both swimming and wading, soon made their presence the lake known the profound silence the evening. Grey Indian ducks, pintail, redbill, crested mudsuckers (Sterna hirundo), handsome widgeon, egrets, plover (Charagrius Mongolicus), red-legged water-hens Calidris), sandpiper (Tringa and black-necked cranes (Grus Close the shores the lake the stream found the long-tailed eayle, fish-hawks, falcons, black-eared kites, ravens, larks, jays, finches (Pyryilaudu and Onychospiza Taczanowskii), swallows, and few others.
the second day our halt the Alyk-nor, set out early the morning make rough sketch the lake, taking with and Badukshanoff, well one the Mongols. all rode, carrying only what was necessary for shooting trip our saddles—a teapot, few eatables. The weather was glorious—calm and clear. The sky above was marvellously blue, and could, thanks the transparency the air, make out distinctly the most distant objects the valley. lowlying shore along which first rode was uniform shape. Sand-banks projected from the water, forming islands, which served asylum for the birds. places came upon springs, fringed with green, which wild asses and antelope were feeding. But what interested most were the bears, whose fresh tracks had been noticeable soon left camp. had apparently passed the night the higher ground, moving down daybreak the shore along which were riding. While was busily employed trying sketch the banks and put the shade colour the top the water, well sketch the birds swimming about it, amused themselves watching the various herds animals wandering the shore. The bears were soon sighted, and could with the naked eye easily distinguish the build the male compared with smaller dimensions his mate. Now that they were our path, the temptation after them was irresistible. gut hearer saw that they were playing, and that would consequently easy get close enough for shot them.
Leaving the ponies, Badmajapoff and went after them with the cunning experienced hunters. sound disturbed the deathly stillness the morning air. Dust, raised footfall, fell whence had risen, and there was reason fear that our quarry would scent us. When, however, reached the patch level ground which they were disporting themselves, were once Bruin instantly stopped playing, and, raising himself his haunches, looked intently our direction, His mate shufiled him, equally alarmed. For the moment they might have been statues, but quickly arranging which animal each was take, tired simultaveously. bruin fell heavily the sward, while the she-bear appeared the same; but quickly getting up, she almost un- noticeably slipped off the green and disappeared. When came the other— the dead bear—she had already gone some distance, but with the glasses could make out her quick shuffling gait and occasional halts, the poor trightened beast looked back our direction. companion mourned her escape, but endeavoured console him saying that the future months would have many chance correcting his mistake and proving his marksmanship.
Having skinned our victim and fastened his coat one our saddles, were ready move on, when suddenly caught sight another large old bear coming quietly towards from neighbouring marsh. While was wondering what was best done, came closer and closer, purposely making for us, until was within 400 paces. Slipping off pony, quickly went meet him, and when within about 120 paces, dropped him like log with couple bullets from Berdan rifle. His skin, like that the first, was excellent condition,
No.
J \f id ed ite on ads it, en- ust the eet. ere 28), was the ally ank ra kk 18 1 be
410 THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM. lost time removing it. Inside him found some eggs, probably those birds whose nests had pillaged the marsh. The stomach the first bruin, which had killed the middle his game play, had been quite empty.
Having tied the second skin one the saddles, lost time pushing towards the foot small hill, Tologinin name, where the bank clear running stream, flowing from north-westerly direction into the called temporary halt. With the dry wood and grass around us, soon had nice fire burning, which roasted meat and boiled water for tea. appetites that morning were indeed envied, for were hungry the proverbial hunter. The ponies let loose, and they revelled the green pasture Jand. The weather was perfectly glorious. Not cloud was seen the pure blue sky, and the rays the sun, now high the heavens, were warmer. Lying back the soft velvety grass, gazed upwards into the wonderfully azure sky, and high above the blue could distinguish wandering birds whose sharp eyes the carcases our victims had not long escaped. rovers the air moved towards the direction their booty, and then swooped downwards like veritable bombs. Taking looked the place where had left the dead bears, and saw wild ass one them, walk round it, and then, stopping with his head erect suspecting something, suddenly dash off full speed. feathered scavengers were still moving towards one central point—their booty—where glorious feast awaited them.
After finishing their tea, companions set work improving the skins scraping off the thick fatty tissues,* which, threw them aside, served entice one the white vultures. swooped down quite close us; but for its daring impudence this winged robber forfeited its life, being bowled over bullet from one our military rifles. Its plumage was beautiful that kept for our collection. Later continued our journey round the lake, keeping for long possible close the shore. The western end was much intersected small streams falling into the lake and forming between them ponds and which made movement both difficult and slow. Avoiding bog, got what was evidently animal track, winding about gravel soil and gradually, almost imperceptibly rising, the high shore the lake, whence could see the valley lying before all its beauty. the glistening surface the water the huge peaks the Burkhan Buddha were
Having killed some shore swallows riparia) which were flying over the rocky shore, continued our way. Shortly afterwards saw herd wild asses coming towards from the near hills, and they were brave enough approach within fifty paces us. studied them intently through glasses, but their large deep eyes could detect sign fear—only curiosity. How- ever, were obliged push on, and moved forward they once took fright. They raised their heads high, snorted loudly, and then turning round quickly galloped off, kicking one another they went. When the move the wild ass carries his head proudly erect, and waves his short tail from side side. our way camp the eastern shore the lake passed great number them, and addition several antelopes, whose beautiful shape and graceful build, the size and carriage their horns, well their quick and curious called forth remarks admiration and astonishment from young
only possible skin animals roughly when out shooting; the actual cleaning and curing trophies done camp.
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THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM. 411
were busily occupied watching the various animals that imperceptibly approached our camp, the east which (and the left bank the stream) Ivanoff and some the cossacks were waiting show the best crossing. few more minutes and were in. With splendid appetites tackled the mutton and drank our tea, describing the others what had seen and done.
The Alyk-nor lies open valley, bounded the north the Burkhan- Buddha range, and the south the Under-Kuku hills. Although nearly versts circumference, this fresh-water basin seems comparatively small, owing the gigantic scale its surroundings—the Tibetan mountains. Its height above the sea 13,370 feet. Its greatest length, which the lowlying shore the north end, versts. Its other measurements have been already given. The colour the top the water was very variable, depending the condition the surface and the light. the water were calm, the surface smooth, and the sky cloudless, the lake seemed steely-blue. Under opposite conditions its colour was monotonously grey, varied only occasional dark shades.
regards ichthyological fauna, the lake could boast but few varieties, though was literally crammed with fish. The great quantity them, well all the lakes, rivers, and streams Tibet, undoubtedly due these waters having probably never been fished since the beginning the world. kept the following specimens from the Alyk-nor for our Schizopygopsis thermalis, Sch. malacanthus and aphua (Nemachilus Kungessanus, Crassus), which, according Prof. Inkoylsky, the Kharkoff University, the latter species.
The foreshores the lake were covered with grassy vegetation. low- lying ground was dotted with green patches, which were small reeds, blue and yellow iris, primula, and saussurea; and amongst them the common shrubs (Myricaria Prostrata) typical Tibet. The flora found the northern shore the lake were richer and more varied. stony nullah close under the hill came across crimson milk-vetch (Astragalus scythropus), while here and there was sweet-smelling stock (Cheiranthus), and the narrower clefts under the cliffs were more the common shrub (Myricaria prostrata). leaves appeared paralyzed with the frost, and broke off the moment oue touched them. Amongst them the pedicularis was struggling come into flower. Near the myricaria, thrown there, was the green rose which some the preceding year’s tall bushes were still flower. the top the steep cliffs was the corydalis, and lower down the euphorbia. somewhat less common plant was the Przewalskia tangutica with yellow petals, and growing the dry clay slopes were wild tea bushes and eurotia.
The stream Alyk-noring-gol, flowing out the north-east corner the Alyk-nor, runs almost west-to-east direction, corresponding the trend the hills and the valley which they enclose. first narrow and yellowish clayey colour, this stream moves eastwards widens and becomes clear from the rapid silvery waters the brooks tumbling into from the neighbouring Amnen-kor range, which the western prolongation the still larger range Grey-headed The length this stream till its junction with the Egrai-gol (on the left bank) about versts, and the force its current was fairly strong.
The Alyk-noring-gol valley, narrowing places width five versts, and others opening nearly double that width, rich pasture land, and affords ample grazing for wild The Tsaidam Mongols there every year hunt wild asses, antelopes, and wild yaks. The vegetation the lower end the valley little different that the lake. The further proceeded eastwards the greater
t ne he re he : to We it. ild Un per ful ing
412 THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM. quantities statice, Przewalskia tangutica, and eurotia were visible; along the streams rising the Amnen-kor fruticosa, were abundant. Amongst the yellow and lilac-coloured iris mentioned above was the tigrida, which eventually took its place. This had large beautiful flowers. the marshy edges pools found Ladotis, and little higher Here and there was the Myricaria prostrata, but was more scarce than formerly, and consequently finer. was also the greenish-yellow slipper, the small low- growing ephedra and the Lasiagrostis splendeus the latter found along the sides the valley close the hills. Amongst the rhamnoides grew clematis (Clematis Orientalis) and the tiny sweet-smelling honeysuckle (Lonicera), and along the branch streams rhubarb spiciforme). Under the hill the southern side the Burkhan-Buddha range there were quantities stock thus) with yellow and reddish-brown flowers, deeply rooted amongst the stones. the marshes along the northern foot the Amnen-kor various kinds herbs and other grassy plants were growing, among which was the primula and golden- yellow bachelor’s button (Ranunculus).
the confluence the Alyk-noring-gol and the Egrai-gol met for the time the nomad Tanguts belonging the Aimak Rangan. They were living small number banuiks,” called the Tibetans banags.”
After traversing almost the entire length the Alyk-noring-gol valley, left near the Kuku-bulak (spring), entering one the northern nullahs the Amnen- kor, which were obliged cross able proceed our journey south. first this nullah seemed quite attractive, but moved the view became wilder, the ascent stonier, steeper, and narrower; even the path was sometimes invisible, and before had been long, Jeroy—one the Mongols who was invaluable shepherd charge our animals, though worthless guide, for which purpose had been given Baron dsassak—was, our disgust, obliged confess his ignorance the road. soon heard this ordered him proceed rear, and trusted own instincts and the knowledge which had acquired prolonged wanderings enable guide the party.
The first day our stay the Amnen-kor hills, June was remarkable for the great cold, coupled with the quantity snow which fell great heavy flakes from early morning till noon, covering the ground with thick layer more than foot deep. slowly ascended, the feathered inhabitants the higher hills—mountain hematopygia)—flew down the centre the nullah, and with shrill cries crossed from one side the other, now and then settling close the passing caravan. Amidst the noise their cries soon heard others—sweet, delicate, soft sounds—quite new me, and which once attracted attention. After few minutes was astonished see the nearest rocks, well the grass-covered slopes, some very beautiful birds which was not difficult recognize the Leucosticte discovered the late last journey the Burkhan-Buddha mountains, and which had for some time hoped come across this part the Tibetan hills. expedition succeeded securing only one specimen this bird, spite making special trip order try and get hen bird (they had already got cock), And here, sixteen years later, again saw them, both single birds well coveys, amongst which were both the red males and the smaller grey females. first only gazed them longingly from afar, but within half hour was holding two dead birds hand, and involuntarily remembered our celebrated ornithologist Bianky, who saying good-bye had expressed the hope that would secure specimen this bird, describing the grey colour, which was then more less guess. From the specimens the Zoological Museum the Imperial
D W d sh lit cil » th lai
THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM.
Academy Science, the above-mentioned has been able now recognize new species, the Kozlowia (Kozlowia Roborowskii).
Delighted getting such valuable trophies, had quite forgotten the unpleasant- ness the weather. was now mid-day. The snow was longer falling, but the brilliant glare the glittering snow the sun hurt our eyes. the khainiks were tired and our yaks required rest, were obliged halt and ease them for time their heavy loads. The neighbouring rocky peaks, towering above the ridge, times were visible, and again times were hidden from our view the moving clouds which wandered picturesquely amongst the mountains. After rather ascent reached the stony, razor-like ridge. ‘The heavy snow which had fallen, though making movement difficult, enabled follow the zigzags, and last reached the centre the pass—height 15,990 feet. highest peak was some 700 1000 feet above it. neither side ofthe pass was there any view had. the north was snowing heavily. the south was another range hills. this route never used natives, the path followed must have been made animals—wild yaks and asses. The descent down the northern side this nameless pass was steeper than the ascent, and were therefore all the sooner the grassy bottom the nullah, though obliged lead each the bulls prevent them slipping. When darkness came decided bivouac where were, and were then able rest after all the discomforts the day. were worn out that bear, coming almost into our bivouac like unexpected guest, was allowed depart his own free will. Taking every advantage his luck, proceeded along the bottom the nullah, from bottom top, and, passing overhanging rock, leisurely stood his hind paws and care- fully scratched his back against the rugged projecting boulder.
Next morning, proceeding the nullah and gradually inclining the north, reached pretty piece ground surrounded rocks dotted with shrubs, and close rich grassland, which enabled halt four days with the greatest benefit our animals. From here two expeditions were made, one myself reconnoitre the pass leading over the principal range the south, the other Kaznakoff the north, order buy some transport bulls from the nomad Tanguts, and, possible, procure reliable guide. and Teleshoff scoured the neighbouring rocks search specimens for their collections.
Early June Kaznakoff and left camp almost simultaneously. first followed the same nullah which had arrived, but after little got into steeper one leading towards the summit the southern range. rule pre- ferred riding walking, and went along carefully scanned the rocks and the grass patches between them for life and flowers. Musk-deer were seen grazing, but they scampered off over the rocks soon they noticed us. little further saw herd wild asses down the valley, while high above the hills now and again saw the ubiquitous vultures. The sun rose sluggishly, little little lighting the side nullahs, and instead silvery hoar frost the grass was covered with glittering drops dew. Hopping about the boulders were large handsome mountain finches (Pyrhospiza longirostris), Carpodacus rubi- cilloides, Accentor fulvescens, rubeculoides, and other small birds, brightening the summer morning with their songs.
neared the pass came across red bear, which was occupied with his own affairs that never perceived coming him till couple bullets laid him low. The sound the shots echoing loudly among the rocks quickly attracted the who frorn the near crags had been watching our movements. companions this expedition were Jarkoy and Dadai. Having skinned the bear and tied the trophy one the ponies, were about proceed our
r d re n rd ot or rs iv
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414
THROUGH EASTERN TIBET AND KAM.
journey when vulture swooped down close that had slay him, his body falling close that the bear. soon fired all his winged companions flew from the rocks, and, circling over the dead bodies, settled again their former places. But was surprised notice that even when some distance they still refrained from approaching the dead bodies. Meanwhile had neared the pass. The snake-like path wound about the steep slope and crossed more accessible ground, where saw our pretty friends the finches (Kozlowia Roborowskii), and halting for few moments shot couple them, Another half-hour and had climbed the top the pass, whence scanned the broad horizon the south. front was typical Tibetan down which the descent was considerably steeper than the ascent which had just made, and almost the centre the panorama before us, glistening amongst the greenish-yellow velvety foothills, lay the watery expanse the Oring-nor. Beyond this fairly large lake, the blueish distance, rose the wall-like ridge mountains which give birth the Yellow and Blue The rarefied air was remarkably transparent, much mislead with regard the distance the lake, whose shores could clearly see. For long was unable tear myself away from this wonderful picture, presenting striking contrast the view the northern side, where the ground fell away precipitous wild-looking gorges divided sharp-ridged spurs.
Being sufficiently satisfied with our knowledge the road, and after fixing the height the pass 15,780 feet, commenced retrace our steps along the morning’s path, zigzaging about across the narrow strips snow lying the northern side the hill. Soon, projecting rock, saw second red bear, smaller but similar that which had killed earlier the day. They were evidently pair, and this was now the widowed female searching for her mate, but she time, and avoided following him his unknown distant journey. the moist edges green plots were again lucky securing specimens the mountain finches, which were this occasion together with the Leucosticte topygia. Proceeding where the dead bruin lay, found, our surprise, that the body had not been touched the vultures, which had now collected countless numbers. The reason was, doubtless, the presence the dead bird lying alongside; see what would happen, amused ourselves removing its body some hundred paces, when were rewarded seeing its immediately swoop down one after another the dead bear and commence their feast. Fighting over the body, those huge birds attacked each other with beak, talon, and wing, filling the air with their curious discordant cries. mount and fire into the brown them with rifle was the work moment, whereupon away they flew, with the exception six, which had breathed their last. the bear little remained. Taking home for our collection pair the best specimens this Gyps himalayensis, finished our sport for the day, and, the sun had already sunk below the horizon, made tracks quickly possible for camp,
Kaznakoff had already returned with some nomad Tanguts, from whom had luckily been able purchase three transport bulls and some butter. gave them two the most tired our khainiks, which hoped able again the Tsaidam our return journey, and persuaded one them, who
professed intimate knowledge the neighbourhood, accompany guide.
the course conversation with him regarding the route, learned that the pass which had discovered was really one the best over the Amnen-kor range,*
Some versts the east the pass which crossed called the Kara-gol, which equally accessible’.
i
EXPERIMENTS TRANSPORTING POWER SEA CURRENTS. 415
leading into the valley the Hwang-Ho, Ma-chu river, called the also known the Yellow river.
The Amnen-kor range, has been said above, the western continuation the length about 100 versts from west east, and breadth about versts, this range consists towards the west two chains peaks, tower- ing among the eternal snows. determined the level the snow-line here about 16,170 feet above the sea. the Tibetan side were able see these lofty snow-capped peaks the western half the above range. Generally speaking, the Amnen-kor appears much less imposing from the south than from the north. The northern slopes the Amnen-kor, being usually under snow, feed number small streams belonging the basin. The southern side gives rise one two, whose waters fall into the which itself runs into the Pacific ocean. With regard the indefinite expression two,” should mention that one stream was reconnoitred us, and accordingly shown the map. rises the western and higher part the and, the river, receives its left bank several streams, which flow from the nullahs further east. the eastern portion the Amnen-kor stili uoknown, one can only guess the existence other streams. flora and fauna this range are, generally speaking, much the same those the more portion the Burkhan-Buddha.
continued.
EXPERIMENTS THE TRANSPORTING POWER SEA
Dr. JOHN OWENS.
great differences opinion which exist the relative importance wave and current action moving material upon the foreshore sea-bed show the necessity for some experimental investigation the subject. one importance connection with the study coast erosion, and, furthermore, one which beset with many difficulties and pitfalls.
The experiments about described, while only touching the fringe the subject, will, hope, give rise some discussion from which valuable information may obtained; and the matter one pre-eminently suited for research, the opinion the members upon the lines along which this should run will valuable. experiments were made last August, the coast the Wash, near Holme, Norfolk, where there fine stretch sands exposed low and, owing the existence several large pools swills left the receding tide, varying velocities could obtained near the outlets these pools into the wished, the first place, find out, actual trial natural bed, what sized stones current certain velocity could move.
The method adopted was Having procured and numbered series flint stones ranging size from half inch inches diameter, found suitable current, and placed these stones one one the bottom over which the current was flowing, until the size was found which the current was just able move, the next size above being refused; the number the stone was then noted. The next step was measure the velocity the current. was done driving two stakes into the bed measured distance apart, and timing the travel float
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416 EXPERIMENTS TRANSPORTING POWER SEA CURRENTS
between. was possible get the velocity with great accuracy this the observation being repeated several times check. The results these observations are set forth the accompanying table.
During the course the experiments several curious points became apparent, the most noteworthy, perhaps, being the extraordinary governing power which when present any quantity. The ordinary sand the seashore com- menced move under the influence current 0°85 f.p.s., the movement being the form the well-known sand ripples; all velocities 2°5 these ripples remained well marked, but about the latter velocity they were always swept away, and sand movement continued smooth sheet along the bottom, rate the movement being suddenly and very greatly accelerated. So, then, between and 2°5 ripple-marks sandy bottom remain well Now, turning the table, will seen that long such ripple-marks the bottom, the movement each stone was arrested the hollows tie ripples: that is, although the current was strong enough move stone smooth sandy bottom, was not able lift out the trough beween two ripples, hence the stones invariably stopped there. therefore, say f.p.s., which had force enough move stone nearly inches diameter
was from doing so, except for very short distance, the The first instance continuous movement recorded the table occurred f.p.s., the sand was moving continuous sheet and all ripples had been swept away. would thus appear that where sand exists quantity, currents, 2°5 mile per hour, are moving shingle, whereas about 2°5 f.p.s. the current suddenly acquires the power moving stones nearly inches diameter over sandy bottom.
The presence even slight hollows irregularities the bottom, large flats upon the stone, had always great upon the transporting power the current. The effect either these was always arrest the movement the stone, unless the velocity the current was greatly excess that required move it; and the bottom was sandy, such stoppage invariably resulted gradual sinking and burying the stone the sandy bottom, that, should the current subsequently increase velocity, could not dislodge the stone until the sand had been swept away. The inference which this appears justify that, since the sea-bottom nearly always irregular, and stones are seldom perfect spheres, the effect currents alone, unless exceptional velocity, chiefly limited the transport fine matter, such sand and mud.
The above conclusion further supported some other facts which came light. Referring experiment No. the table, will noted that the bottom over which stone inch diameter was rolled the current con- for here have current moving stone nearly inches diameter, but unable move shingle one quarter inch diameter.
Again, referring experiment No. 13, where stone about inches diameter was rolled over sandy bottom. threw into this current about fine shingle, ani remained for some time heap the bottom, particles moving away intervals from the edges, and eventually most was buried the sand and remained there. clear, therefore, that here another compli- cating feature: From the movement shingle particles over smooth bottom, cannot infer that the same current would move froma mass similar Each particle derives support from its neighbours, and, further, from the fall force the fact, the patch shingle behaves somewhat like very thin flat single stone lying upon the bottom.
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with the transport large masses material are chiefly concerned, here again appears reason for thinking that, rule, currents alone are moving shingle larger stones, and their action chiefly limited the transport sand and mud.
the method which stone moved current, practically all cases the stone was rolled over the bottom and not dragged along. The only excep- tions this rule were one case stone very slippery bottom, mad artificially aud the other, that stones having strands seaweed streamer weed preceded the stone and prevented from rolling. tried flat stones, having the largest diameter from 2°54 times the smaller, and all cases they tumbled over and over the current, when was strong enough move them.
While making this experiment, noticed curious thing. throwing one these stones into swift current flowing over smooth peat-bed, rolled for moment so, and then got its edge and was carried off the current ing along like wheel; then tried another, throwing before, and beliaved exactly the same way; and similarly with the remainder the stones, dozen all—every one, without exception, got its edge and rolled away hoop. All these stones were disc-shaped, and this appears the normal
method travel such flat disc-like stones when passing over smooth, bottom.
Turning now the theory impact and transport current, may stated briefly that the diameter particle, higher specific gravity than water, which current can move varies directly the square the velocity the current and inversely the density water the particle moved. Since the weight the pebble stone varies the cube its diameter, follows that the weight stone which current can move varies the sixth power the velocity the current. Thus current f.p.s. will able move particles four times the size and sixty-four times the weight which current move. increase velocity may therefore produce effects out all proportion what expected.
have worked out upon these lines the following formula, which gives mately the size stone which current given velocity can move
When represents the diameter inches the particle,
Velocity current feet per second, then, for the ordinary partly rounded pebble lying smooth bottom—
45V2 v2
and the weight pounds will be, flint, approximately There are certain variable factors which make impossible find correct formula suit all such are the nature of, and amount friction on, the bottom, and the shape the stone; but the above gives fairly accurate Included the table, for comparison, are two columns showing the theoretica diameters and weights the particles which each current could move, according the above formule. The accompanying diagram gives also the theoretical curve weights and diameters beside the actual. will seen that there dis crepancy which cannot explained the great variation the conditions which each experiment was carried out. Returning now the movement sand. The first sign movement
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EXPERIMENTS TRANSPORTING POWER SEA CURRENTS. 419
apply the formula find the velocity required move each grain singly, the case the stones experimented with, and taking the diameter the sand-grains one-fiftieth inch, which they certainly did not exceed, find that velocity f.p.s. sufficient. have experiment check this by, but believe fairly correct.
Again, turning experiment 13, where current 3°3 was not quite capable moving fine shingle quarter half inch diameter, thrown heap. The velocity required move grains this diameter singly about
Weight from formula Diameter . «
Weight from experiments Diameter .
Weight of Flint stone moved,in lbs.and Diameter in inches.
Velocity Current feet per-second.
will now noticed that both cases the velocity required move the grains when the mass was about four times that required move them singly. not suggested that this ratio holds good for all sizes particles, but shows roughly the great influence the grouping and locking the particles together.
Considering all the points mentioned, would seem that the whole must regard wave action being more important than current action erosive agency. The correct view the matter doubtless that which keeps sight the constant interaction these two agencies—the waves being more effective moving the larger particles and stones, owing their sudden and violent action
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and the currents keeping steady movement from place place the finer sand, and matter which has been suspended the water wave action.
That fairly rapid currents exist upon the sea-bed deep water beyond the limits wave disturbance appears established but their power, unless they are very great probably limited the transport fine mud and sand. course, given sufficient velocity, current can move particles unlimited size, these remarks are intended apply only currents the existence which have evidence present.
After the paper, the have listened with very great interest what Dr. Owens has had tell us. Perhaps Dr. Strahan might open the discussion.
Dr. Srranan: think that this paper contains large number valu- able observations, and only regret that the author had not more time this meeting justice his work. One point interests greatly, and that the comparative rate travel large stones and small. the case the Chisel beach, well known that the east end the stones are large, towards the middle they are intermediate size, while towards the west end the beach they are small, and has commonly been stated that this gradation size due attrition the pebbles their travel from east west. writing the Geological Survey Memoir had sum the theories which had been advanced the Chisel beach, and formed different opinion. concluded that the larger pebbles were sorted out wave-action, and that they travelled eastwards and faster than the small,
with the result that they assembled the east end the beach. One other point seems worth mentioning, that is, that when the Channel tunnel was first proposed, good many years ago now, the French examined the sea-bottom partly diving, partly sounding, and were able even make geological map the bottom Dover strait. They got sufficient number specimens show that
Chalk and the Greensand crop out the sea-bottom, and were able indicate
the position the outcrops. clear, therefore, that the current capable
away all loose material from large part the strait.
Mr. The paper contains much interest geologists, and the author has attacked the subject the right way, but think that the erosive powers currents has been underrated. Holderness there rapidly receding coast-line, from which boulder clay and other drifts are being removed very large quantity. were not removal this material going below low water, the tidal platform would continuous from the place where the erosion first began. instead, the distance between high and low water comparatively narrow, and quite clear that the low-water line advancing inland proportionally the advance the high-water line. The sea deepens steadily from the land, proves that erosion the boulder clay going much below the level low water. Moreover, the material that has been removed not only sand and mud, but also the boulders which were embedded the drifts, for these boulders had not been removed they would soon have formed protecting layer over the whole the new sea-floor. The character this bottom shows that the boulders are moved along beneath the sea, accumulating here and there for time patches, leaving other patches bare clay and smooth sand. ‘The result important
geologically, because the encroaching sea produces, not absolute plain, but
slope, which barrier its further advance.
The author’s observations with regard the rolling stones along the bottom, will help account for deposits, such the Bunter Pebble which stones considerable magnitude sometimes occur scattered, comparatively fine-grained
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EXPERIMENTS TRANSPORTING POWER SEA CURRENTS. 421
matrix, and not segregated. One sees how such pebbles may have been set upon smooth sandy floor till they reached rippled surface, and then brought suddenly rest and embedded sand. mention this only example the usefulness the author’s work the geologist, and hope will give further results the same lines.
Dr. All who are interested the action waves and currents will welcome Dr. Owens’ addition the experimental data which possess the connection between velocity flow and size stone moved. finds that ordinary seashore sand unmoved below speed current equal f.p.s.; that between 0°85 2°5 f.p.s. the sand moved the form the well-known sand-ripples, the depth water being from inches; f.p.s. shingle the bottom remained rest but that f.p.s. the current suddenly acquired the power move continuously stones nearly inches diameter and weight, stream 3°5 inches deep. own hitherto unpublished measurements currents similar depth the Dorset and Norfolk coasts yielded results concordant with these observations. found that clear streams where the sand was not the well-known ripples, but only presented small lee-facing cliffs considerable intervals, the sand was scarcely moved except few spots where swirling motion occurred, and that these streams the velocity was—
Locality. Velocity. Averuge velocity.
Velocities streams showing the well-known sand-ripples about inches wave-length and occurring long trains were follows
Locality. Velocity. Average velocity.
” eee eee os FR
The following observations were made streams which the ordinary best- known ripples had been replaced those which move upstream,* the superincumbent water being moreover turbid owing sand continuously suspension. Stones the beach (smaller, however, than the author’s 3-inch pebbles) were often observed travelling rapidly the sandy beds these streams.
Locality. Velocity. Average velocity. The average diameter the sand-grains Branksome was Mundsley sand per cent. passed through mesh inch, but was stopped mesh inch. will noticed that the highest the above speeds corresponds with that which Dr. Owens found the sand travel continuous sheet without rippling. suggest that this effect depends upon particular state the current, viz. that was not fully charged with sand. When saturated scours, when supersaturated silts, and when picking just much dropping generally maintains some kind sand-wave.
Geographical Journal, June, 1899. Kumatology.”
ner Hits e of hut to tne this the nisel dale are ition
422
EXPERIMENTS TRANSPORTING POWER SEA CURRENTS.
deeper water, certainly, the larger kind sand-waves, with wave-length about feet and height about foot, occur with higher velocities current; thus Aberdovey found these sand-waves were increased current feet per second depth feet water.*
Prof. Osborne Reynolds thought that the power current raise sand fiom the bottom and maintain suspension depended change from stream-line flow eddying flow. This, said, took place suddenly critical velocity which was proportional the dimensions the channel. Mr. Thrupp concurred this opinion, but found that the critical velocity, the commencement flow, does not set in, the case large channels, until still higher speed attained than that required Osborne Reynolds’s formula. large channels, says, there are innumerable instances where the velocities the bottom are sufficient, according mathematical theories, roll along large cubical boulders, whereas, fact, they hardly disturb fine sand, and goes say that mathematical theories hitherto advanced can account for these critical-point phenomena, because the assumptions upon which they are based have not been ascertained experi- ment.”
have now cleared the ground for two suggestions which desire make for future first, suggest that the rate settlement through water should determined for all sand and shingle experimented upon. For the sand some Chine the rate settlement was about inches per second. all the cesses transport wind water which are connected with the formation waves ripples granular material the rate subsidence the dominant factor, and expresses, better perhaps than any other single quantity dimension, specific resistance the material transport. The power transport suspen- sion due, mainly due, upward swirls. given current these have velocity inches per second, sand which settles that rate still water would just maintained continuous suspension. the case shingle travelling quantity (which more important consider than the case isolated large stone trundled over comparatively smooth surface smaller stones) the effect the upward swirl probably capital importance, and is, suppose, account its efficacy that the shingle can travel shorewards even when sand travelling seawards for the upward swirl made the forward current the waves shallow water much more powerful than that made the slower return current the wave. Hence the heavy shingle jerked forward just after the passage the crest each advancing wave, but remains anchored during the return current until last the slope the beach tends equalize matters. second sugges- tion that systematic observations, such Dr. Owens has made well shallow streams, should now undertaken with the aid the diver’s dress deeper water.
conclusion, should like draw attention some definite measurements rate travel shingle beach which were taken friend Mr. Nelson
tichardson (after consultation with me) the Chesil Some the half- bricks which dumped the beach between tide-marks travelled during twenty- eight hours fine weather 574 yards, speed which, continued, would have carried them the whole length the beach, viz. miles, seventy-two days. With regard this question the carrying power currents
Geographical Journal, August, Tidal Currents.” See remarks vol. (1897), 244.
Experiment the Movements Load Brickbats deposited the Chesil Beach,” Proc. Dorset Field Club, (1902), pp. 123-133.
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suddenly increasing when you pass from stream-line flow eddying flow, course the eflect waves impart something the character eddying current, because they produce those sudden upward swirls which raise the material into suspension.
Dr. also spoke.
Dr. Evans; should like call the attention the committee the importance the question which has been raised the existence and dis- tribution currents sufficient carry sbingle from place place. Prof. Cole and Mr. Crook, who have examined the blocks and pebbles found the submerged contivental shelf off the west coast Ireland, have shown that the distribution the different rock types indicates that the material has not, asa rule, been transported any considerable distance currents, and that furnishes valuable information the geology the are many other places considerable distance from the coast where banks occur beneath the sea. the absence powerful currents transport ice, these would date back time when such localities were the neighbourhood the shore-line, and furnish evidence the depression the land relatively the sea. the same time, the area the west Ireland, they may many cases lead important conclusions the solid geology the sea-bottom.
Captain should like say word. think would add very much the information that has been given the slope the bottom was stated all these experiments. Whether stone would moved current perfectly flat surface the same way down incline doubtful. all these experi- ments the stone has not been moved flat surface, but down incline, for the water would only flow down that incline. With respect the movement the larger stones and not the smaller ones, would suggest that this due the friction the bottom making the water the bottom move slower than that above. Ithink the flow might not move small pieces shingle the bottom, but might larger pieces above where the power the water greater. With respect the disappearance boulders, the boulders might disappear from quite another cause. the boulders washed the Holderness coast, some might fall into soft substance, and know from practical experience the east coast, directly obstruction gets the sands, the tide hollows out the sand around and the obstruction sinks down. This goes the Goodwin sands and the estuary the Thames; hence the saying these are quicksands. course they are that way. However, quite agree with the conclusions that not the current that erodes the coast the wave-action.
Captain Creak: Very much the point has already been said, but should like make remark two. About three years ago Prof. Herdman, who engaged natural history inquiries, asked question with regard the action waves produced cyclone over plateau fathoms water, and whether substances the bottom would moved the that depth. replied the negative. have since thought over the subject, and remember being anchor the open coast New Zealand during severe cyclone, when the water broke fathoms and caused violent disturbance the materials the bottom. You could see the sand moving remarkable swirls, but not think the waves had any action beyond short distance from those breakers. Hence believe, materials are moved the bottom, must due the current. Some time ago was staying Skegness, the Wash, and observed there that the beach was continually changing, and the calm water near the shere constantly full fine débris motion with the tide. Thus currents may carry such debris far and wide, but must the waves breaking upon coast which are the cause the motion stones and coarse sand.
424 EXPERIMENTS TRANSPORTING POWER SEA CURRENTS.
Mr. With regard what Captain Creak says the power the waves matters considerable depth, may not uninteresting call attention the fact that Sir William Matthews, the occasion his recent presidential address before the Institution Civil Engineers, made some remark that point. says, “The depth which wave-action extends much greater than was formerly believed the ease. With reference the exceptional depths which wave-disturbance extends, the late Sir James Douglass once men- tioned meeting here that lobster creels, off the Land’s End, lying from fathoms, had been found filled with sand and shingle their subsequently gale, some the stones weighing much thus showing that position sea-action had descended the depth named. may observe that off the coast Peterhead and Fraserburgh, there have been similar experiences. Sir James Douglass, the same meeting, also gave remarkable instance coarse sand having been found the external gallery the Bishop tock Lighthouse off Scilly, after gale, height 120 feet, the depth water the vicinity the rock being fathoms, thereby showing that the sea-bed had been disturbed that depth, this being the only source from which the sand could have been obtained.” seems that these observations have some relevance the point raised Mr. and might explain how the submarine movement took place Holderness. might accounted for what Dr. Owens has called the interaction waves and currents. ‘The action the waves might bring about such upward swirl the manner described Dr. Vaughan
Cornish, put heavy matter like boulders into such position dealt with
The afraid must bring most interesting discussion end calling Dr. Owens reply.
Dr. With reference Dr. Strahan’s and another gentleman’s remarks, want make one point quite clear. did not intend paper convey the impression that movement could not take place deep water. aware that move- ment does take place, due, opinion, the interaction waves and currents, but the paper referred entirely currents, and did not take into consideration the effect waves. think the second speaker who suggested the conclusion should modified misunderstood me, because did not come the conclusion that movement did not take place, but rather that currents alone, the absence waves, had little effect. And also wish say that mind limited wave- action the continental shelf. think outside that there question about the waves not touching bottom, and therefore outside the continental shelf, deep water, the opinion that the conclusion applies. remarks have been extremely interesting, and very glad see has confirmed observations the sand-movement. may say that have observed the peculiar sand-waves which referred to, and, roughly speaking—I did not get accurate thought their formation began about feet per second. The small ordinary ripples were swept away, and suddenly large wave, about feet from crest crest and about inches high, was suddenly formed; and travelled against the stream, distinct from the small ripples, the trans- ference sand from the front one the back the other. With reference the interaction waves and currents, appears that Cornish gives clue great many is, that when the waves are rolling over current you cannot expect that current flowing stream-like motion, con- sequently have state eddying suspension earlier than there were waves. think the movement material Holderness and elsewhere must looked entirely from the point view the interaction both waves and
c e a a 1
ower sting ecent eater ional men- thus milar kable p water had could vance Dr. waves dealt
the nove- rents, the hould that wave- about deep have d my the about and trans- ives con- and
NEW DISTANCE FINDER. 425
currents. With reference the suggestions which Dr. Cornish made further experiments, aware that there are many points which require settled. The rate settlement water have worked out theoretically, that is, found the current which, upward velocity, was required suspend the particles, the impact which was equal the weight the particles water. The results compare favourably with any observations have been able find. Then again, systematic observations deep water, that have not done; have not all the necessary appliances. very difficult see what takes plece, and difficult measure the current the bottom deep consequently, altogether more difficult thing than the shallow-water observations. point was referred which think should make clear, that the slope the Now, did not actually level the bottom, but feel satisfied that the bottom was all places, except perhaps one, practically level; also the inference which was drawn from the flow water think incorrect—that is, that the water would not flow unless the bottom was slope. The flow the water depends upon the surface slope the water itself, and not upon the bed over which flowing. Captain Creak mentioned limiting the depth wave-action fathoms. very difficult say where wave-action ceases. disposed think myself somewhere near the edge the continental shelf, but where not know. very suspicious see the continental shelf all strewn with débris from the land, should not wonder wave-action takes place 100 fathoms, and the edge the shelf was its seaward limit.
The sure shall pass hearty vote thanks Dr. Owens for his paper, which has given rise interesting discussion.
NEW DISTANCE FINDER.* REEVES.
geographical and other survey work often great importance able obtain distances rapidly without actual measurement upon the ground, and with- out having first set off known distance base, which necessary with many telemeters and rangefinders. The existing instruments for this purpose depending upon the angle subtended short rod, are either too liable put out adjust- ment for rough exploring work owing derangement prisms and change temperature, necessitate the sending assistant with rod the point which the distance required. The Bar Subtense instrument, used the Survey India, the latter class, and excellent its way, but the sending man with rod often most inconvenient, and naturally its use positions. What wanted instrument this character, strong and simple construction, not liable inaccuracies through the derangement adjustments, and without the necessity separate rod, that distances inaccessible well accessible points can quickly measured with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes; and have designed the Distance Finder” here shown meet these requirements.
will seen from the figure, this instrument consists light rod certain fixed length, made that can revolved vertically and horizontally upon tripod, and carrying two telescopes, one each end the rod, and con- nected band “invar.” These telescopes can revolved independently, each
Research Department, February 21, 1908.
No.
to 2
426 NEW DISTANCE FINDER.
its own axis, vertical plane, well rotated collarsin the line their optical axis, correct for collimation error.
The two telescopes are similar general appearance, but while the one there are only fixed central vertical wire and horizontal wire, the other, addition these, fitted micrometer, means which second vertical wire can moved across the diaphragm. rod fitted with clamp and tangent screw, and with the telescopes, can taken bodily off the stand, reversed vertically, and replaced upside down, well revolved horizontally.
The system taking observations for obtaining the distance object arranged that repeating the measurement with the rod and telescope different positions errors vertical and horizontal paralielism, well collimation, are eliminated, that, should the adjustments deranged, the rod become
DISTANCE FINDER.
flexed any means, the errors are detected and made balance each other, and the mean the observations will give the correct distance. ‘This most
important feature the instrument, and renders suitable for use under somewhat rough conditions.
Upon the side the rod will found scale divisions and corresponding distances feet, which, ensure accuracy, has been constructed from known distances. The distance possible measure with this instrument will, course, depend principally upon the length the rod, and the accuracy with the observations are made, but compares favourably with the Bar Subtense instrument now use, while the method repetition and elimination errors considerably increases the possible accuracy the results. The usual length rods now made are feet and feet. The makers this Distance Finder” are Casella 15, Rochester Row, Victoria Street,
REVIEWS. EUROPE.
Tue ScANDINAVIAN
‘Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Flora. Von Dr. Gunnar Andersson. Maps and Illustrations. scientifiques Congres inter- national Botanique. Wien, 1905. Jena: Fischer. 1906.
Any regarding the history the Quarternary flora the Scandi- navian peninsula must take the Ice age its starting-point. The chief problem before the investigator determination the nature the vegetation during the inter-glacial periods. The author compares some the intra-morainal fossil- bearing deposits Scandinavia and Denmark, and comes the conclusion that they not correspond exactly the inter-glacial deposits the continent, the nature which well known. The chief part the paper made very clear and interesting account the five periods corresponding five successive layers fossil-bearing deposits. The gradual rise and, comparatively speaking, fall the plant-types characteristic the five periods described, and the reader left with very vivid picture the history the Scandinavian flora. The Dryas flora the first period was more less arctic and alpine character, and took possession the land was vacated the receding ice. This period was followed that the birch trees, which brought with them large portion the plants which are still to-day common Scandinavia. Then followed the period the pine, which was succeeded the oak period. During this age, which was milder than even the climate to-day, the oak went further north than found to-day. Finally, the spruce period set in, which has not really yet its complete development. The author discusses the influence man the vegetation this district. also able establish the existence three periods the aquatic vegetation. the Dryas period corresponds that the water-weed the water-lilies are the characteristic aquatics during the birch and pine periods. natans was flourishing during the latter part the pine, but mainly during the oak period, and now almost extinct. Numerous photographs illustrate this very interesting and instructive article.
ASIA. Two
Anglo-Chinese Commerce and Diplomacy.’ Sargent, Appointed Teacher Foreign Trade the University London. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1907.
Enterprise China: Account its Origin and Development.’
Kent. London: Edmund Arnold. 1907.
Too much cannot written about China those who are position add our knowledge the country and its people from actual observation, who have taken the pains acquire information the subject and set forth convenient and instructive manner. Mr. Sargent’s book admirable example the latter class. almost entirely based first-hand authorities—treaties, books written members embassies China, parliamentary papers, which list given the bibliography, British consular reports, and reports the Imperial Maritime Customs. The author gifted with the power seeing both sides question, and writes with obvious desire for strict impartiality, indicating fairly the Chinese well the British point view the unending series difficulties that have obstructed the course British trade with China, and beset the diplomacy which that has given rise. also skilled statistician,
| heir Arm her, and rsed is so rent ire hily and 10st hat ling wn of lich rors : er
428 REVIEWS.
matter peculiar importance dealing with the complexities Chinese trade returns. The volume divided into eleven chapters, most which are devoted the historical statement diplomatic relations between Great Britain and China, four chapters being intercalated the course trade different periods. thus mainly historical interest, but doubt there will more geographical interest the sequel it, which Mr. Sargent holds out the hope, designed contain analysis and explanation the commercial condition the present,” and thus fulfil “the ultimate aim the history.” One notable fact geo- graphical interest may mentioned standing out from the text, namely, long-continued and importance British trade raw materials British origin and manufactures these. speaking British trade with China the days the East India Mr. Sargent mentions that the exported consisted almost exclusively woollens, and little lead, iron, and tin,” British articles export dating back some cases the time the Romans, and the most important them one that began displace the earlier export raw wool about the fifteenth century. Even 1833, the last year the company’s exclusive privilege, woollens constituted more than ninety per cent. the British exports China.
Mr. Sargent’s general conclusion the present situation worth quoting—
present she [China] tutelage, with her financial and economic policy laid down treaties forced her Foreign Powers. The Chinese may coerced into restraining their resentment for time; the history their with European Powers proves amply that they neither change nor forget. Once they obtain sufficient material force, they are likely assert uncertain fashion the claim that right enjoyed even minor Western nations, the right determine for themselves the conditions intercourse with foreigners.”
this work seems certain meet with steady demand, which will soon necessitate new edition, attention may drawn few improvements that ma) made with view that. Occasionally the author assumes more knowledge the part the reader than one entitled expect from one who comes new the subject. reference made the critics the East India Company will cause many reader ask what was the nature their criticisms, question and the private trader are not enough enable the reader understand the conditions under which strict monopoly the East India Company the end its days trading company, are told, was imported into Great Britain private traders, appears from and elsewhere. One who reads 115 “the rebellion” China, and unacquainted with the history Chinain the fifties and sixties last century, will ask, What rebellion?” Lastly, reference made “the newly formed East India Company,” such manner will induce the reader believe that the company was already existence 1596.
The full title Mr. Kent’s book sufficiently indicates its scope. The preface dated August 28, 1907, and down that time the text appears give full account the position the railway enterprise China, Five maps furnish important aid enabling the reader grasp the present situation, one them being general map, distinguishing colours and signs the nationality the capital employed employed the construction railways opened, constructing, and projected. When works are active progress while maps are preparation, not wondered that the maps should not quite the date the text, and the maps are most likely consulted first, and some cases perhaps solely, may well point out that the text mentions (p. 72) that
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429
section miles (more than one-fifth) the Peking-Kalgan railway was opened September 30, 1906; that the railhead the Chengtingfu-Taiyuanfu railway now beyond Pingtingchow (p. 170), and that the Kaifengfu-Honanfu railway was opened public traffic April, 1907, far Chenchow, the junction with the Peking-Homkow railway, although all these railways are shown the (or maps) entirely under construction. The maps are all merely outline maps, but the text contains indications the geography the routes followed the different railways, and summary considerations the commercial signi- ficance the lines constructed planned. valuable feature the book the appendix 100 pages, containing the full text various agreements entered into with reference the construction various railways. The index is, unfortunately, not quite adequate, and the English not unexceptionable was lain on,” “In normal times this river narrow sandy valley,” 37). AFRICA. Whyte. Two vols. London: Hutchinson Co. 1907. 24s. net.
Mr. Schillings achieved reputation With Flashlight and Rifle Equatorial East Africa,’ consequence the extraordinary merit the photographs contained, the illustrations revealing photographs had ever done before the nature and mauner life the wild animals depicted. His new work contains over 300 photographic studies the fauna tropical Africa, reproduced from the original negatives without retouching any kind. Some the photographs were taken night, and many circumstances requiring all the skill and nerve intrepid hunter. The result series absolutely trustworthy records wild life given hour bush, veldt, forest, stream. Their value the naturalist can hardly overestimated, and couple decades, even less time, may many instances the only evidence obtainable the game Central Africa the close the nineteenth century. The larger fauna South Africa has been nearly exterminated more than fifty years. The process will repeated, rate, the regions further north unless Mr. Schillings’ pleadings for preventative measures heeded. Certain large game reserves have been British reserves alone are five times the size Scotland—but hitherto international action has been weak, and the the baser kind strong. The author himself opinion that there only one chance the beautiful wild life Africa being permanently preserved, that lies the hunters themselves consenting protect and spare it.” His view that the hunter should also undertake the part preserver, the author further enforces interpolated chapter “Sport and Nature Germany.”
Photographs the native fauna home” naturally reveal good deal the flora their habitat. Thus, ‘In Wildest Africa’ contains much information concerning the distribution the flora well the fauna the regions. Mr. Schillings, fact, heads his first chapter Spell the Elelescho,” Elelescho being the Masai name for camphoratus, L., the characteristic bush considerable areas British East Africa. The author’s style poetical and impressionist, perhaps little fatiguing, but often his vivid imagery gives exactly the desired impression, when compares the flamingoes lining the shores lake garland living lake-roses.” burden the whole book passionate protest against the destruction wild life, whether “noxious” not—a protest the same time reasoned and reasonable. are two statements, incidentally made, which exception may taken. 19;
=
430 REVIEWS.
vol. the author refers Dr. Kandt “the discoverer the source Nile misleading assertion all the more regrettable little later (on Speke described “one the discoverers the Victoria Nyanza.” need belittle Speke order exalt Dr. Kandt, nor any for misdescribing Speke’s achievements.
°
AMERICA,
American INDIANS. Strecker Schréder. 1907.
One the strongest arguments advanced the advocates the independent evolution American culture since the Stone Ages the primitive conditi navigation the time the discovery. was naturally urged that, natives possessed seaworthy vessels the late pre-Columbian period, they never possessed them and without them the highly specialized civilized peoples eastern hemisphere could not have reached the New World, even the one land route then and still occupied Siberian savages.
Now the author this learned essay surveys the whole field from and finds nothing anywhere, before the advent the whites, except the frail Eskimo cayaks and umiaks, the bull-boats the plains Indians, the various types dug-outs and birch-bark and other canoes ranging over the who! continent, the Peruvian balsas (rafts) propelled shreds sails, and such-like crazy craft. were decks, masts, rudders, oars, nothing but paddles, here and there the Many were propelled long poles shallow waters, while the better-constructed Araucanian dalca, the large Abenaki boat, and the pirogue the Caribs, best equipped all the native craft, never ventured the high seas out sight land, although they might yards long and carry crews from eighty hundred men.
Dr. Friederici’s statements are all the more worthy credence, since they are not only drawn from the best available sources, but are also absolutely has theory serve, indulges speculations, and quite indifferent the consequences that may drawn from the results his researches this hitherto aeglected field. There index, and large body notes prepared for this issue disappeared before going press. But some compensation made very full list authorities, occupying less than twenty pages. should added that this volume forms one the series the Studien und
Forschungen zur Menschen- und now being issued under the editor- ship Dr. Georg Buschan, Stettin.
Pp. vi. and
Plates and Inset Illustrations. Berlin: Wasmuth.
Here have last complete monograph the puzzling petroglyphs which are distributed large numbers over great part South America, but occur most frequently the region between the Amazons and the Caribbean sea. The work, which measure complementary the author’s der Kunst (1906), divided into three distinct sections, the first com- prising exhaustive survey the whole field, with references the collections and observations previous explorers; the second giving detailed all the carvings were studied and partly copied the author himself during the years 1903-1905, the upper Rio Negro and its affluents and
REVIEWS. 451
the Yapura basin; the third containing critical examination the various
views hitherto advanced the origin, antiquity, and significance the so-called
“inscriptions,” with author’s final conclusions the subject.
should added that the twenty-nine plates comprise prepared reproductions own collections, the study which his conclusions are chicily based. refuses look these rude objects learned spectacles,” read into them lofty notions quite beyond the mental capacity the present natives, whom and their still more primitive ancestors the carvings are ascribed. They are not historical documents, even records passing events; they cannot regarded any sense pictorial writings, nor they possess much, any, religious significance, and Orsi Mon- bello’s fantastic interpretations are dismissed with contempt. you like indulge such extravagant you may draw anything, however absurd, from the rock carvings, the style which quite primitive and artless, same elementary forms recurring again and again, not only the upper Rio Negro and surrounding districts, but throughout the whole South America.” fact, the conclusion the same that arrived Mr. Cyrus Thomas regarding the North American mound-buildings. None these things are beyond the power the present Amerindians, and any earlier races higher capacity nothing
LANGUAGE.
‘Vocabularies the General Language the Incas Peru, Simi (called Quichua the Spanish Sir Clements Markham, London Ballantyne Co., Ltd. 1907.
his introduction this work, the author says, general language the Incas Peru spoken the Andean regions South America over vast area from Quito Tucuman and the Argentine Republic. was the wisdom the Incas endeavour establish one language throughout their dominions.” gives interesting account the spread this court language Cuzco, and the works regarding which various authors have published since 1560. Garcilaso Vega, Inca, states that was the general tongue, and that his ancestors decreed that all men should learn it, and that natives Cuzco were sent teach all new vassals.
This propagation the court language was not very difficult, for notable that any South American Indian learns the language another with extreme facility. Some scholars contest the claim Sir Clements that there was but one general language, and that there was another, now spoken the the Titicaca basin, who number about half million people Bolivia and region,” says Sir Clements, was originally tribes called Collas, Lupacas, Pacasas, Pacajes, and Urus,” and “there not single early writer who used the word connection with these tribes.” characterizes blunder” call the people the Collao and their language that name, and that the word must have been unknown with reference the people the basin Lake Titicaca the time the conquest.”
the centre the region, the members the Aymara Academy,” devoted the study the people and their language, take exception such conclusion. They state that Loaysa, Archbishop Lima, during the councils held there (1552-1567), suggested that special attention should
paid the two general languages Quichua, tongue the Inca, and the
The first book issued from the printing press Lima was Doctrina Cristiana Catecismo para instruccion Indios’ under authority the Provincial Council.
8 e 0 to or- ich rk, iled and
432 REVIEWS.
Its title-page reads: Translated the two general languages this kingdom, Paz, the scholars refer Padre Bartonio’s work, also mentioned Sir Clements Markham, and quote from the introduction written the Padre Juli 1596: “There are many nations Indians, such the Canchis, Caunas, Collas, Collagues, Lupacas, Pacases, Carancas, Charcas, and others; and they have different names, they speak different tongues. There this book the Lupaca language which among all the tongues holds the first place. The Pacasas and Lupacas are the midst all the
The contention between Sir Clements Markham and his critics the Andes, among whom the cabivet minister, his Excellency Ballivian, the erudite President the Geographical Society Paz, extremely interesting, and the linguistic world, well the student the history the Inca empire, owe debt gratitude Sir Clements for originating the controversy. must profound Quichua and scholar who dare enter the arena, and must belong the retiarii hope entangle his adversary.
But Sir Clements has ample field for his ‘Runa Simi’ belt the Andes 2500 extent, and eastward, several places, the base the cordillera. Even the Javary river, boundary between Brazil and Pert, the tribes use Quichua to-day general tongue; but its spread down the eastern slopes the Andes due more the Jesuit, Franciscan, and other missionaries than the Incas themselves. The Portuguese missionaries carried Tupi geral the Amazon the boundary-line the Spanish colonial where they met the Spanish Padres who had descended the Andes arwed for their spiritual labours with the Quichua language, which, preliminary, they taught the various fragments tribes from which they formed their missions, for they could find one language among their neophytes which well served their purpose. Hence the colleges Quito and Ocopa was incumbent every friar learn Quichua before departed for the scene his labours among the savages whose territory once bordered the Inca empire.
All the Quichua-speaking regions are now awakening intense activity under the lash modern progress. and Bolivia especially are rapidly coming the front. The commerce and internal development the west coast South America, including Ecuador, cannot urged their best possibilities without their representatives being equipped with some knowledge the Quichua language, and Sir Clements Markham’s timely little compendium offers excellent
medium for acquiring, not only outline its grammar, but ample vocabulary for all essential purposes.
AUSTRALASIA AND PACIFIC ISLANDS. VEGETATION WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Pflanzenwelt von West-Australien siidlich des Wendekreises. Mit einer Einlei-
tung iiber die Gesamt-Australiens Von Dr.
Diels. Maps and Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1906.
Another very valuable addition our rapidly increasing knowledge the world’s bas been made the appearance monograph Dr. Diels the plant-world that part Western Australia which lies the south the tropic. The most interesting portion almost the whole book the introduction. Tnis places before the reader concise summary the characteristic features the vezetation the whole Australian continent. The vegetation the great central plateau tropophil xerophil, exhibiting all possible modifica- tions, till becomes the nature desert formation. Along the northern and
east witl the reac veg part affix con! and anc wor
the
(1)
(2)
the as | the esc the lie ne
REVIEWS. 433
eastern coast the continent there broad strip more luxuriant plant-growth, with evea true rain-forest one part. the north-west and the south along the great Australian bight, the steppe-like character the plateau-vegetation reaches the coast. The south-western corner has only narrow strip hygrophil vegetation. Towards the end the book Dr. Diels discusses the relation the flora extra-tropical Western Australia other parts Australia, and other parts the world. This flora typically and thus shows distinct with the eastern and northern districts. exhibits, however, real connection with any other part the Earth. the whole, also, there are very great differences between the vegetation the Cape and that Western Australia, although affinities have always been made much of. But the difference species and types vegetation really more marked than the similarity. there the latter may explained assuming far-back common origin from southern-hemisphere flora, development along analogous lines. The working out the history and development these two floral districts one the important problems plant-geography.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Two SEISMOLOGY.
(1) Earthquakes: introduction Seismic Geology.’ William Herbert Hobbs. New York: Appleton Co. 1907. xxxi. and 336, Plates, 309 Illustra- tions Text. Price net.
(2) Science Séismologique. Les tremblements Terre,’ avec une Préface par Ed. Suess. Par Comte Montessus Ballore. Paris: Armand Colin. 1907. Pp. viii. and 579, Plates, 540 Illustrations Text. Price fr.
sutor ultra crepidam maxim which would leid stagnation science carried extreme, but the cobbler who takes another trade should learn thoroughly before begins teach, and this Prof. Hobbs has not done. geologist reputation, has developed theory earthquake origin which accept part, though not entirely; but regards the science seismology whole, his acquaintance with the work which has been done imperfect, and guide his book frequently misleading its omissions. The title would lead expect full treatment the geographical aspects earthquakes, but even passes much the work which has been done others establishing the fact that earthquake origins are much more extended than was one time supposed, and attributes the discovery the principle steepest slopes Montessus instead Prof. Milne. This principle, that the regions great seismic and volcanic activity are those which the average surface slope highest and steepest, one which, like the continent America, could not escape discovery its truth more important, from scientific point view, than the name the man who first gave expression it, but this mentioned all,
The Comte Montessus Ballore established reputation, whose work has lain the domain statistical and geographical seismology. writing general treatise the science, has had deal with subjects which lie beyond the province his labours previous his acceptance the post director the Seismological Service the Republic Chile, but, having read nearly everything that has been written, and remembered nearly everything has read, writing, moreover, with the lucidity and precision Frenchman, has produced remarkably complete text-book seismology. The only section with which find serious fault that dealing with instruments, where the want experience their use, the interpretation their records, has led him
, e le
434 REVIEWS.
into error more than one instance. His explanation the principle the duplex pendulum not that offered the inventor, nor the correct one, and the illustration 291 the principle the light and the heavy horizontal pendulum curiously error. The principle the horizontal pendulum the same whatever the weight, but may applied two different systems mechanical construction. the one boom pivoted support, and maintained horizontal position wire thread attached some point along its This the system adopted what may call the Japanese type horizontal pendulum, since was elaborated that country, and the system depicted the principle the heavy pendulum but also the system the Milne instrument, which is, proportion its dimensions, the lighiest use. The other system construction utilizes rigid bracket-like framework, which pivoted two knife-edges. This system may illustrated the garden gate, and the one figured the principle the light horizontal pendulum is, however, adopted the heavy horizontal pendula used Italy, and the only system mechanically admissible where very heavy weights are concerned also utilized the Rebeur Paschwitz instrument, which light pendulum, though its lightness solely the result its small and proportion these should classed heavy pendulum. The praise the Wiechert instrument goes too far, and some the claims made for cannot substantiated; not astatic reality, but only name, nor does the damping the pendular oscillation enable record the actual movement the ground. saying this intend dispraise; the instrament admirable one, and marks the introduction what may called new principle, any rate, new method applying old principle, the construction seismo- graphs, but this does not make all other patterns obsolete, away with their utility. The astronomer does not discard his transit instrument because will not serve the purpose equatorial telescope, and more than one type instru- ment will continue required seismology, and the free-swinging pendulum, whether vertical horizontal, will still continue used and useful.
Apart from this chapter, the book deserves praise account the present state our knowledge earthquakes, and may especially commend the inclusion two chapters dealing with the methods construction avoided adopted countries subject earthquakes. practical application the principles seismology which generally neglected treatises the science.
GENERAL.
The Geological Society. 1907. xx., 336. With and Plates Medals. Price 7s. 6d. (to
The unique position London has given its societies the opportunities for exceptionally useful service; and probably society has had more profound influence the science with which concerned than the Geological Society. was established November 13, 1807, when eleven men met the for geological conference and discussion. combined social aud aims the young society led almost split its ranks. Sir Humphrey Davy and Sir Joseph Banks held that the society was only geological dining club,” which was not encroach the sphere the Royal Society the publication new scientific serial. According those
to est the an the wa th: est Ca tr: to j
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the founders who were primarily geologists, the dinner was secondary importance the serious scientific work the society, and they intended its work very serious. Geology was then disturbed spirit reckless speculation, which had inherited from its ancestor Cosmogony. was the aim the founders the Geological Society rescue geology from unscientific methods, and establish firm basis accurately observed facts. was the ideal the The proposed federation the society the Royal Society was rejected, and Davy and Banks resigned their membership. Dinner part the official business the society was soon abandoned, while the attendance the meetings increased, and the papers and discussions grew interest and importance. The researches the members the society both British and foreign geology were rewarded rich harvest valuable materials, and their publication worthy scale was rendered possible the generosity some the members; and the early Transactions the Geological Society were issued with wealth illustration that helped raise the standard scientific serial publication.
The society has been eminently successful its mission. has raised the status geology, promoted the use detailed field work, prepared the way for the establishment the Geological Survey, and guided and inspired most the best work British geology. published geological map England and Wales, which long remained the standard. Considering that the materials were collected small number private surveyors, time when travel was difficult, slow, expensive, and when the available topographical maps were very imperfect, the map monument the devotion and skill its authors. society has been helped towards success its strict attention its work. has been careful avoid trespassing other sciences, and declined allow authors transgress its boundary between geology and geography. ‘The one occasion which the writer had abridge paper submitted the society was the omission few paragraphs which were regarded physical geography rather than geology.
The society has gained world-wide scientific reputation but its meetings and publications have been confined technical has made wide appeal popular interest. has accordingly been the more easily able maintain high standard scientific excellence. has, however, always included among its Fellows men leisure and wealth, and has quietly accumulated moderate capital and been able afford the publication its costly maps and has also collected what perhaps the best existing geological library, and its geological research.
The story the society’s work has now been well and concisely told volume prepared for the recent centenary the society Mr. Woodward. gives full sketch the foundation the society, and briefly summarizes its later history and the chief branches its work, and calls attention some the most famous discussions and contributions science published its and Journals. narrative enlivened many racy personal anecdotes about the leaders the society. The volume also contains valuable collection historical data, which will make work permanent value reference the history British geology. work illustrated with excellent series photographs from Buckland its present President, Sir Archibald Geikie.
many the leading members the Geological Society have also been connected with the Royal Geographical Society that Mr. Woodward’s valuable monograph useful addition the history British geography.
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436 REVIEWS.
TRAVELS.
Prima traduzione, fatta sull’ originale Arabo Celestino 1906: Pp. xxvii., 412.
Travels Ibn Jubayr, edited William Wright. Second edition, re-
vised Goeje. Leyden: Brill. 1907.
The Arabic text Jubayr’s travels was ably edited Wright, with the aid Prof. Dozy (Leyden, 1852); his account Sicily was edited and translated, with most valuable notes, Amari (Paris, 1846); his description Syria and Egypt great part reproduced, the Arabic text being here also accompanied with French version, the Recueil des Historiens des Croisades, Historiens Orientaux, vol. (Paris, 1884); and smaller sections have been dealt with other works, such Wiedemann’s zur Geschichte but Schiaparelli’s version the complete voyages this great Spanish Moslem renders great service all scholars and historians, especially those un- acquainted but moderately acquainted with Ibn Jubayr’s mother-tongue. valuable introduction (pp. followed useful summary the route our traveller, who, starting from Granada February 1183, returned Granada April 25, 1185. The translation itself, occupying 348 pages, illustrated serviceable notes, all too brief (pp. 351-68); good indexes persons and places conclude the work. Among the most noteworthy sections this Viaggio are (1) those which treat Moslem Spain, the islands the Greek archipelago, Crete, Sicily, Sardinia, the Balearics (pp. 3-8, 310-348); (2) the Mesopotamian sections, especially the description Baghdad (pp. 198-237, and the Meccan and Damascene (pp. 53-150, etc., Ibn Jubayr was endowed with exceptional qualifications observer and historian, and serious student the twelfth century can safely neglect him. regrettable that map accompanies this issue.
1907 the Trustees the Gibb Memorial re-issued text, revised Prof. Goeje, with Wright’s original preface and notes, and some additions the “But comparison edition with the former” (Wright’s original) will show,” says Goeje, “that had very little change.” interesting know that Robertson Smith intended one time have undertaken this revision now carried through
Geography.’ Ellis Heaton, London: Ralph Holland
Co. 1906. Book The British Isles. Book IV. North America. Book
Africa. Maps and 1s. 6d. net
Geography.’ Willis Johnson, Pp. 322. New York American Book Co. Price $1.00.
Rational three parts. Part (195 pp.) Climate; the British Isles; Europe. Ernest Young, London: Philip Son. 1s. 6d.
Mr. Heaton’s preface states that his books are for students who intend taking the subject for Matriculation, Preliminary Certificate, Certificate Each consists Part I., dealing with general and Part sections giving all the materials required for sketch-map such examiners ask The aim the author fairly well fulfilled. But, apart from the geological treatment Parts each, which the main good and commendable, the humanistic geographical concepts are wanting, and hence Parts II. have little recommend them from that view. The collection facts will far
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REVIEWS. 437
towards enabling student meet the requirements the above examinations. The plan the books has produced sound analytical treatment, with few mis- takes selection, and not many serious omissions. The type treatment naturally much the same level for each volume. the whole advance shown the type text-book generally use, especially for the Preliminary Certificate Examination. Each volume has glossary geological terms, several diagram-maps, generally clear, and set typical exercises for the student work out. many general and descriptive statements for which the teacher would have find the details and illustrations detract from the nature the books.
Mr. Johnson’s book commended, being one the few books which treat consistently one aspect geography. compiled from many sources which the teachers can seldom, ever, find opportunity togo. The first portion deals with the general aspects this side geography simply, and later chapters take and expand explain previous passages. The book designed for secondary schools and for teachers’ preparation, and for the latter most useful compendium. The style clear throughout, and the examples and applications are practical. There good chapter Projections, appendices Gravity, Motions the Earth’s Axis, Mathematical Treatment Tides, the Zodiac, Practical Work Mathematical Geography, formule and tables, and glossary and index. These all supplement the fourteen chapters the text. The publishers claim that work. doubtful that entirely true the strictest sense, but that does not detract from its value collection from many sources,
Mr. Young’s books are designed meet the requirements the Board Education’s syllabus for secondary schools. the first section attempt has been made piace the psychological before the logical order the subject. This section brightly written, though the style severely heuristic,” and might tax the patience many pupils. the later sections the severely logical arrangement militates against any regional treatment, and places becomes summary and little more, while considerable amount descriptive padding finds its way in, and serves confuse the main issue. The whole planning, however, the three work should considered before passing too strong opinion the preliminary volume. There are several more expensive text-books which not suit general requirements well this.
The consideration these text-books leads one more than ever the con- clusion that, though certain course may planned for term’s year’s work geography, necessary make provision for parallel courses general aspects the subject, such Mathematical Geography, Climate, Morphology, etc., and especially are these the province practical work. suggested, the use the term parallel,” that advisable keep them distinct. The above- mentioned Rational Geography’ seems arranged somewhat these lines, and the ‘Mathematical Geography’ might well used the basis course
SHORT NOTICES.
Plagues and Pleasures Life Bengal,’ Lieut.-Colonel