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ILCHESTER LECTURES

ON

GEEEKO-SLAYONIO LITERATUEE

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AND n» belahon to

THE FOLK-LORE OP EUROPE DURING THE

MIDDLE AGES.

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XKIlitb two appenMcea and platea*

BY

M. GASTER, PH.D.

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LONDON:
TEdsNEK & CO., LUDGATE HILL.

1887.

[All rightt reterved,]

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BALt.ANTYNK, HANSON AND CO.
iiniNttURCH AND LONDON

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PROFESSOR G. I. ASCOLI

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PROFESSOR F. MIKLOSICH
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GBATEFULLT DEDICATED.

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PEEFACE.

The purpose of these Uchester Lectures, delivered
at Oxford in the spring of rSS6, is to show, on a
small scale, the importance of the Slavonic lite-
rature in the literary history of modern Europe,
and likewise to call attention to the vast materials,
hitherto untouched, which are preserved in the
literature and folh-lore of the Sla/vonic natioTis.

In treating of the religious and popular litera-
ture, I confined myself to the most important texts
and immediate sources. My references to autho-
rities it would he very easy greatly to increase.

In another worh, however, I contemplate the
publication of all the Slavonic texts belonging
to the apocryphal literature, in the form of an
English translation, loith copious notes and
introductions.

viii PREFACE,

In two appendices I have traced both the
origin and history of the " Bible Historiale " and
of the Glagolitic Alphabet from a wholly new
point of view.

Finally y I take great plea,sure in expressing my
heartiest thanks to the Trustees of the Bchester
Fund for honouring me with the invitation to
deliver these lectures at the far-famed University
qf Oxford. I value the honour all the more^ as
I had just arrived in England^ an exile, banished
by the Government from my native country of
Roumania.

I wish also especially to thank Mr. I. Abrahams,
who kindly assisted me in reading the proofs.

M. OASTEB.

London, March 1887.

L

CONTENTS.

I.

PAGE

INTRODUCTION : VARIOUS THEORIES OP THE ORIGIN OP POLK-

LORE— THE GREEEO-SLAYONIC LITERATURE ... I

11.

THE BOGOMILISM : ITS SPREAD AND INPLUENCE — THE APO-
CRYPHA OP THE OLD TESTAMENT 1 5

III.

THE APOCRYPHA OP THE NEW TESTAMENT — ANTICHRIST —
LIVES OP THE SAINTS — THE LETTER FROM HEAVEN AND
THE PLAGELLANTS — THE " GOLUBINAYA KNIQA " . . 45

IV.
EXORCISMS AND SPELLS 75

V.

ROMANTIC LITERATURE — POURTH CRUSADE — ALEXANDER —

TROJAN WAR— DIGENIS 89

VI.

APOLOGUES AND PABLES — BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT — THE

WISE AKIR AND SYNTIFAS IO9

PEOPLES IN THE B A LEAK PBSmSULA — ORIOtH
OF TBE SUTONIC LITER&TC&E— CTRILL AKD HBTBOD . t:;

APPENDIX A.

THE BIBLE HIBTOBULS AKD THE BIBLE OF THE POOR

APPENDIX B.

IBB ORIGIN or THE QLAOOUTIC ALPHABET

I-

INTRODUCTION: VARIOUS THEORIES OF THE
ORIGIN OF FOLK-LORE. — THE GREEKO-
SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

I.

To watch the rise of new nationalities or of new
literatures is, without doubt, one of the most
interesting spectacles ; it is to see before one's eyes
scattered elements being built up into a liviurr
organism, with all the marks of a characteristic
individuality. Such a process of development is
often presented to our gaze, though at a distance,
when we seek to follow out the progress which one
or other branch of culture has made in order to
arrive at the form in which we at present have
them,^as, for example, the origin of language, of
writing, of civilisation. The same problem which
such questions offer is likewise presented to us by
the rise of any literature, in so far as it throws light
on the modern poetic constructions of civilised
nations. The question whether it is meehanieal
mixture or organic assimilation meets us at the
very outset. Hence the investigation of sources is
a characteristic of our critical age. We are chiefly
interested in finding out what are the elements
which the literary artist finds given to him, and
which he proceeds to organise into a higher unity.

4 . ■. '•■ CREEKO'SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

"^•feat is the part played by the unconscious poetic
■. activity of the people 1 what that of the con-
scious art of the poet ? Nay, we must proceed
farther, and raise the question, which has hitherto
been considered unnecessary : How far have the
people any creative imaginative power ? Do the
peoples create independently of one another poetic
products derived immediately from the influence
of surrounding Nature ? And how far can we
assume this creative impulse in modern times 1

The investigations which we include under the
name of Folk-lore have had their beginning quite
recently, and have, therefore, undergone consider-
able modifications and changes. It is the merit
of the Eomantic school in Germany, which arose at
the end of the preceding century, to have directed
attention to the hitherto neglected literature of the
common people. Herder was the first to collect
the folk-songs of many nations. Clemens and Bren-
tano made collections of the German folk-songs, as
Bishop Percy bad done in his " Eeliques of Ancient
English Poetry." Thence they turned to other pro-
ducts of the popular imagination, especially to the
fairy tales, then the sagas and legends, proverbs,
riddles, and superstitions. First in these inves-
tigations, both in time and importance, were the
brothers Grimm, to whom Germany owes so much.
Hand in hand with the collection went the explora-
tion of the popular literature, which had thus passed

INTRODUCTION. s

from the nursery and the chimney- corner into the
study of the scholar. Grimnij the creator of
German mythology, ia likewise the founder of
the scliool which we may term the Mythological.
According to this school, traces of the archaic
Northern mythology have been preserved in the
fairy tales and in the whole of folk-lore. The old
goda and goddesses, dislodged from their thrones,
have still survived in the form of demons, ghosts,
elves, dwarfs, &c. ; and the remarkable similarity of
the fairy tales of all nations is explained on the
assumption that their mythologies were originally
identical.

By means of investigations into the Vedas, espe-
cially at the hands of Kuhn, a view of the ancient
mythology was taken up which regards it aa an
incorporation of natural phenomena. The names
of these phenomena, Dyaus, Varuna, &e,, were
accepted as goda and worshipped. Thus many
mythological words have been shown to be meta-
phorical expressions for the sun, the moon, the
clouds, and tLe rain. This having been shown for
Hindu mythology, the method was then applied to
Greek and Northern mythology, although the cir-
cumstances were here quite different ; for amoug
the Greek divinities were to be found many not
of Aryan origin, as Aphrodite the Syrian Militta
{ = Moledta, the gener^itris), or Herdkles the
Phceniciaa Melkart. The problem is still more

6 GREEKO-SLAVONJC LITERATURE.

difficult in the case of the Northern mythology,
which 13 of comparatiTely much later date, at
any rate as regards its appearance in a 'written
fonn. The fairy tales being now only obscure
relics of the mythology, they must be explicable
in the same manner, and must likewise be ex-
plained aa sun, moon, and cloud myths. So, too,
all the superstitions, customs, and generally the
whole popular thought in all its manifold mani-
festations. All these, so far aa they could not
be connected with the dogmatical religion, were
referred to the same mythological origin. Then,
according to this view, the poets absorbed it from
the people and developed it. This is the most
wide-spread and most popular view of the origin
of folk-lore, especially that of Europe.

To this I append another theory, which, from
a chronological point of view, is the latest, but the
principle of which is closely connected with the
former. The most outspoken representative of
this theory is Mr. A. Lang. He also considers
fairy tales and customs as an ancient inheritance
of every nation, further maintaining that they
are nearly related to the mythology. So far this
theory goes hand in hand with the Mythological ;
but the difference between the two is, that, accord-
ing to this view, which I term Prehistorical, both
myths and fairy tales as well as customs, are not
the outcome of etymological speculations and the

'INTRODUCTION. 7

ument of natural phenomena, but the relics
of a primitive state of savagery.

The proofs adduced in support of this Prehis-
torical theory are analogies and comparisons with
similar, or what are presumed to be similar, tales
and beliefs current among primitive tribes and
uncultured nations of the far East. This analogy
between them ia thus explained as the result of
a similar intellectual development, where the one
retained the primitive form better and clearer than
the other, and these tales are only like the flint-
stone chips covered by a later stratum of culture.

But in the same way as our modern philology
does not allow us to compare directly French or
English with Sanskrit or Zend, but retraces step
by step the history of their evolution, in the same
way can we not compare our tales and customs
directly with those belonging to a tribe far distant
in time and in space, of which we neither know
the age nor the connection, where many links iu
the chain are missing, if there ia a chain at all.

This theory rests, then, like the Mythological,
upon the presumption that all that we call now-ar
days folk-lore is of hoar antiquity, and the genuine
property of every nation. Both will be, therefore,
shaken to their foundations if we succeed by a
closer inquiry to prove that it is often the result
of a long development ; that it ia relatively modern,
and that the similarity between the European and

8 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

the primitive and tribal folk-lore is a deceptive
one, or ought to be explained in quite another
way.

Indeed, the Mythological theory, and in this way
the Prehistorical too, received a severe blow from
another, which I term the Theory of Migration.

Benfey, in his celebrated iotroduction to the
Pantchatantra, applied first this theory to the
greatest part of European folk-tales, tracing them
to their Oriental origin and proving their compara-
tively recent date. They passed, as he shows, from
nation to nation, very often in written fonn, and
from this passed to the people, among whom they
were assimilated more and more to the peculiari-
ties of each nation. The same contents received a
different and a national form.*

The folk-tales have now no longer claim to be
considered aa mythological, and the influence to
which they owed their origin was quite the opposite
of this. For the most part, they became the common
property of the European nations through literary
transmission. This has been proved, further, for
many modern fairy tales. Thus Boccaccio's tale
of " Griseldis " has been followed till it became a
fairy tale. Thus, too, the story of Genevieve, ori-

* Id a remarkable eaaay Frafesaur Max Miiller has earned out the sama
line of thought, and has ahown the travels of an Eastern tale through a
number of literatures, till it reached Lafootoine, and followed its traces
step b; step till tbe stoc; becomes more and more Europeauised and
natianatiacd.

INTRODUCTION. 9

ginaUy a miracle of the Holy Virgin, lias likewise
become a fairy tale. Examples of this might be
easily multipliecl, showing clearly the influence of
written literature on oral traditioo.

Proceeding a step farther, we may apply this
theory of migration, or better, this Historical theory,
not only to the fairy tales to which it was confined,
but also to the other branches of popular literature,
like sagas, legends, adventures, and superstitions,
and finally to the Northern mythology itself. Can-
not the foreign and literary origin of this be proved?
Are all those marvellous tales and fabulous beings
originally European ? Is the naive poetic world of
the common folk filled with superstitions, creeds,
and legends regarding the most unnatural and un-
expected events as the most ordinary things in
the world, the remainder and residue of au old,
forgotten mythology, and of a more ancient state of
savagery ? or have they been brought on the crest
of a mighty wave of culture to the furthermost
shores of Europe, and thus form one stratum in all
the peoples of Europe ? Can we not in this way
explain their similarity to one another ?

The very advance of our spiritual and imagina-
tive life hides from us any direct vision of this
development. Much has been destroyed, and we
must deal with the remainder as with a palimpsest.
"We have to take iu hand some decomposing prin-
ciple which shall remove the more recent writing

lo GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

and enable us to deciplier the faded relies of the
older signs. But that which eludes our grasp iu
the West of Europe is offered to us in rich pro-
fusion by the East, especially the South-East, with
its own peculiar culture. The Greeko-Slavic world
has remained in nearly the same condition as
Europe was when it was ruled solely by Chris-
tian thought and by Christian civilisation alone.
While the West has advanced farther, the Greeko-
Blavic world has remained at this point, and accord-
ingly its literature is to us of peculiar interest, as
it enables us to observe accurately the process
by which a written literature, generally of foreign
origin, influences oral folk-Uterature. We see the
alien element accepted and assimilated, the popular
imagination gradually enriched. We can then ob-
serve the reaction of this latter on poetic genius,
which takes in the feelings and thoughts of the
people, and expresses them in elevated and elevat-
ing artistic form,

I term the body of literature with which I con-
template dealing the Greeko-Slavonic, because it
is confined to works translated from the Greek into
Slavic tongues, and where we have, therefore, the
literary sources beyond any doubt.

Bulgaria, as we shall see in the short historical
sketch with which I conclude this work, was, after a
struggle for centuries, incorporated into Byzantium,
and the influence of Greek, already great, became

INTRODUCTION. ii

the sole influence for two centuries. The ■whole
literature was modelled after the Greek, and even
later, after independence had been secured under the
Asenides, Greek retained much of its power. Thus
arose the literature which we term for this reason
Greeko-Slavonic.

This literature is not only that of the Bulgarians,
but is also the Church literature of the Servians,
Croatians, Roumanians, and Russians ; and it began
early to spread over these lands. The Old Slavonian
tongue in which it is written has remained the holy
or Church language of these lands up to the present
day, except in Roumania, where it was superseded
in the seventeenth century by the vernacular.
Thus this literature, together with the Greek,
offers the counterpart of the Latin civilisation,
favoured iu a far higher degree, as this was, by
social and political circumstances.

Besides the interest which this literature affords
us, as I have sketched out above, as regards folk-
lore and the history of civilisation, it also gives
material of no small critical worth for dealing with
Greek, and especially Middle Greek literatui-e.
Many a work of the Byzantine period has been
preserved for us in an improved form because it
was early translated into Slavonic. Modern science,
both in profane and in ecclesiastical history, has
begun to make use of these Slavonic texts for critical
purposes as yet only in a sporadic manner, as

.12 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

both the extent of this literature and its 1
have prevented access to foreigii investigators.

I select from the whole field of Greeko-Slavonic
literature, not the dogmatical, but rather that por-
tion, which shows a living course of development,
and brings before our eyes an example of the pro-
cess by which the spiritual wealth of a people is
increased, By this means the clue will be given us
to many an imaginative product which we meet
with in folk-lore, and which we have hitherto re-
garded as the peculiar property of the people, or as
the survival of earlier mythological conceptiona.
Investigation into these matters is only in its
infancy, and we have first to settle the facts, if we
do not wish to lose ourselves in the field of vague
hypotheses. It is, therefore, the heretical and
poetical literature that will engage our attention,
likewise derived from the Greek, yet powerfully
influencing not alone the Bulgaxians, but also all
the other nations who came in contact^ with the
Old Slavonian language and literature. Mauy
traces will be seen in the medijeval literature of
Western Europe, and I hope to be able to prove
that the religious literature was the most important
factor in this branch of the development of Euro-
pean civilisation, and that the influence of the Old
Slavonian literature was just as important and deci-
sive towards the West as it was towards the East.
The results at which we shall arrive will accordingly

INTRODUCTION. 13

permit of an application to the whole literature of
the Middle Agea, in wliich many points will appear
under an entirely new light.

The fantastic and imaginative apocryphal litera-
ture, the romances and epics, the didactic fables,
were touched by wide religious movements iu
Bulgaria, and have exercised a deep influence on
the imagination of the nations. Folk-lore arose
out of a %t}ritten literature, whose traces we meet
with in saga and romance, ia religious and epic
poems, in riddles and tales, and even in popular
beliefs, customs, and habits. In the following pages
I shall attempt to sketch this literature in a brief
outline, devoting the greatest attention to the most
conspicuous points, as well as to those least known
in Western Europe. AVithin the circle of our inves-
tigations we shall thus include the Apocrypha of
the Old and New Testament, the literature of
history, legend, and amulets, and lastly, the litera-
ture of the fable, as it was transformed from litera-
ture into folk-lore.

II.

THE BOGOMILISM; ITS SPREAD AND INFLU-
ENCE.— THE APOCRYPHA OF THE OLD
TESTAMENT.

II.

At the same time with the culmination of the Bul-
garian power and the Bulgarian literature {which
I shall portray at the end of these lectures) began
a powerful religious movement, which was accom-
panied by results of far-reaching consequence. I
refer to the heretical movement known under the
name of Bogomilmii, which ruled Bulgaria for not
leas than five centuries, and left indelible traces in
the spiritual life of tlie Slavonic nations.

A more thorough -going investigation of this
movement iu its spread throughout Europe leads
us to still more astonishing results. We come
across traces of it everywhere, and a good part
of the religious literature which later on became
folk-literature may be traced back to the influ-
ence of these heretical sects. Even the romances
of chivalry, when divested of their trappings, show
themselves as Oriental tales that have found their
way (always a loug way, and often a dark one)
through many intermediaries to t!ie place where
they are now found.

As this view of mine is more or less novel, I will
permit myself to enter into it in some detail. This

i8 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

is the more permissible as we are dealing at the
same time with the earliest and least altered literary
remaios of the SlaYonic literature upon ■which I am
called to lecture, and these form besides the greater
part of it.

At the time of the conversion of the Bulgarians to
Christianity, there were to be found at the Bulgarian
court ambassadors or missionaries from the Pauli-
cians or Manichseans of Asia Minor. In addition
to these there were a number of Jews, who bad also
come to convert the people to their belief, while
they were still hesitating about Christianity. The
PauHcians bad settled in Thi-aee at an earlier date.
The Emperor Constantine Copronymos transported
a large number of them in the eighth century from
Asia Minor, and thus at the same time transplanted |
the seed of Manichteism in the modified form intro- ,
ducedby Constantine of Samosata. The success of ]
these Paulicians, as they termed themselves, was ,
very great, and in the tenth century they had there
six churches. This religious movement attained
to particular importance through the appearance of 1
the priest (Popa) Jeremiah {c. 940), who called him-
self Bogo-mil, i.e., Theo-pkilns, like the disciple of 1
St. PauL After him his followers termed them-
selves Bogoraili, and Bogomilism kept a foremost ]
place in the history of the Balkan peninsula for
many centuries. In Bulgaria itself it became so I
powerful in a short tiraSj that councils were ixei J

BOGOMILISM. 19

queiitly assembled at Sofia to oppose its heresies.
But all these efforts were in vain. Bogomilism had
taken too deep a root in the heart of the people ;
its power could not be destroyed. This movement
spread even farther, Thrace became the cradle of
an analogous movement throughout Europe. The
apostles of Bogomilism carried their creed first to

' the coast of the Adriatic, thea to Italy, whence the
movement spread to Germany and Southern France,
and eveu as far as Eoglaud, where at Oxford in the

■ twelfth century a council was snmmoned by Henry
II. to take steps to eradicate a new kiud of heresy
which Lad made its appearance io London and
York. Under different names we find practically
the same heretical sects from the tenth to the thir-
teenth century in the following places : — In Bul-
garia, Macedonia, and even on the Black Sea, and
in Russia towards the east : in the "West, in Italy,
especially in Lorabardy, Mantua, Verona, Treviso,
Bergamo, Milan, Piacenza,Ferrara, Bologna, Faenza,
and Orvieto ; in France, throughout the south, but
also in Paris, Orleans, Rheima, and Brittany; and
in Belgium and Holland, and over the whole basiu
of the Rhine — Metz, Sfcrassburg, Cologne, Bonn,
Triers, and Goslar. "We "have already referred to
England.* It is clear that this movement was a
lasting one, and could not have been without en-
during influence.

* WesBBlofeky, Solomon i Kitovraa, St. pBternburg, 187Z, p. 142 scq.

ao GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

These sectarians called themselves simply "Good
,' People," " Good Christians," " Christian Poor ; " by
others they were named Bogomils, ManichcEans,
PauliciaTis, Palarenes in Italy, Katkars in France
and Germany (whence the German Ketzer), and
likewise Bulgarians {whence the French Boulgres,
Bougre). All this shows that they everywhere
retained relations with their spiritual fatherland,
and that the leaders of the movement in Bulgaria
were recognised by them as authorities. Thus, in
the year 11G7, Nikita, the bishop of the Bogomils
of Constantinople, issued a summons for a council
of the French Kathars to be held in Toulouse,

A survey of their doctrines also shows the same
unity of belief among them. Their fundamental
^ principle was Oriental dualism as developed by
Mani. It is still undecided whether and how far
Buddhist influences were also at work. This world
they regarded as the work of Satanael, ie., of
Satan-God, who is a fallen angel. The misery of
this world is therefore his work, as he fights
against the good and tries to destroy everything.
But redemption had come with Christ ; the Old
Covenant, which Adam bad made with Satanael,
had been broken by Christ. But only the Bogo-
mils or Kathars {i.e., Pure Ones) are the true
followers of His teaching, and man could only
attain to holiness by entering their communion,
and by this means he could save hia soul fi-om

BOGOUILISU. 21

farther transmigration through human bodies ;
for metempsychosis formed part of their belief.
They therefore laid upou themselves all kinds of
. mortifications, and tlieir leaders and old men lived
a3 ascetics. Oa the other band, they threw over
the doctrines of the dominant Church, based their
faith more upon the Holy "Writ, excluded the
cross from their religious symbols, and advocated
freedom from the domination of the Catholic
Church and of the nobility. Eschatology foimed
also a favourite topic of theirs — the theory of the
Last Things. Thus the two extremes of creation
and destruction, beginning and end, cosmogony
and eschatology, the fall and the redemption,
formed the chief subjects of their thought, and
likewise the chief contents of their preaching.

Their views about an evil principle found ready
acceptance among tbe serfs, while their antagonis- I
tic attitude towards the Church and the nobility
made tbem acceptable to the opponents of both
institutions. If we add that they propagated their
doctrines chiefly and solely in the vernacular lan-
guages, and "that they clothed their views in the
guise of fantastic and poetic tales, we can then
form some idea of the deep impression their doc-
trines must have made. This is confirmed by
history when it speaks of a crusade against the
Albigenses and of one against the Bosnian heretics,
to which the whole of Christendom had to be

23 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

summoned by the Pope. And yet it was not
completely stamped out ; we find an echo of the
movement iu the Flagellants and the Hussites.
Europe had been shaken to its very depths by the
Criiaades just before, and by this means the soil
had been prepared for this new Leretical move-
ment.

Now in the literature of this period we notice
a remarkable transformation. The old epic songs

; of the cycle of Charlemagne gave way to new
poems filled with adventure and imagination; songa
and sagas free from the fetters of space and time
make their appearance ; a whole cycle of popular
religious literature arises. Can all this be acci-
dental and without any relation to the heretical
movement ? Hitherto investigators, with but few
exceptions, have not thought of any connection
between the two.

But a careful examination of the chief elements
of their origin shows us that in most of them we
have only the disguised figures of other well-
known pieces. Merlin and Arthur, as well as
Marculph and Saturn, are no other than Solomon
and Asmodeus. In the saga of the Holy Grail we
have echoes of Oriental tales. And more ; the same
influence is found in folk-songs and in popular
manners and customs. The mediaaval belief iu

' Satan, with its outcome, witchcraft, as we shudder
; to see it in the protocols of the Inquisition, is the

BOGOMILISM. aj

Ttlie dualism of the Kathars and Bogomils.
Here we find the rule of Satanael on earth as a
kind of counterpart of the rule of God in heaven.
It was but a short step to worship hini, so as to
obtain favour with him, or, on the other hand, to
make amulets as a protection against his power.

The literary activity of the Bogomils was indeed
by no means slight. Popa Jeremiah himself is said
to have written much, e.g., the " Lcgeud of the
Cross," " How Christ became Pope," &c. But the
chief use was made of the Apocryphal writings,
which were translated from the Greek, or rather
revised in a sense corresponding to their wishes.

They were even very well read in the Holy
' Scriptures, and at one time their bishop in Bul-
garia boasted that there was not a single one
among his 4000 disciples who did not know the
Scriptures by heart. Now it is a very remarkable
fact that the earliest translations of the Bible into
the vernacular languages, especially into French
and Italian, were not made from the Latin Vulgate,
but without doubt from the Greek, or from one of
the translations derived from it. In all probability
they came from the Kathars, and were possibly
translated from the Slavouiau. And, in fact, we
can easily explain this ; for every religious reform
begins with the study of the Bible ; and again,
these sects could only influence the common people
by means of the vernacular. We may now go a

24 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

Step farther, and ask what kind of Bible was it
which they used ? Did they confine themselves
to the simple translation of the text, or did they
rather adorn and amplify it so as to suit their
views and to make it more pleasant and accessible
to the people whom they wished to convert?

From the earliest times, as soon as the Bible had
become the Book, Kar e^oxn", the source of all faith
and knowledge, the naive readers could not remain,
satisfied with its plain contents, often incomplete,
and at times seemingly contradictory. Many of
its stories were too short, many names merely
mentioned in the Bible : on these points pious
curiosity needed to be satisfied. The reader would
ask : How did Adam plough tlie earth, for he
could have no knowledge of that art ? How did
Cain know about death, and how did his parents
bury Abel, for previously there had been neither
death nor burial ? Again, what is meant by saying
that God took Enoch ? What was the punishment
of Cain ? Who was Melebisedek, and why was he
called a priest? Such questions could be asked
ad infinitum. Aa a consequence, a number of
legends arose already in earliest times, intended to
fill these lacuuEB and find answers to all these ques-
tions. These form the Apocryphal Literature,
which only became of practical importance when
it was adapted by heretical sects to their own
needs. These tales were often of a poetic cast.

BIBLE-HISTORIA LE.

25

tlerlved from the popular taste and glowiug imagi-
nation, which made them most suitable for a wide
circulation among the people. The heretics altered
various points ia them in agreement with the
views which they professed. And since these
Apocrypha were represented aa the work of Biblical
personages, the doctrines and sayings put iu their
mouths gained additional influence. For this
reason the Apocrypha were particularly favoured
by all sects, whereas the Orthodox Church often
condemned them, as in the well-known Decreta
Gelasii, the lists of Athanasius and Nicephorus.

It is thus by no means surprising that we find
the greater part of these Apocrypha iu the Old
Slavonian literature of the Bogomils, and for the
most part with very slight alterations, which in-
creases their value for critical purposes. Some of
these are even attributed to Popa Jeremiah himself,
among them the "Legend of the Cross," as I
have already mentioned. As we shall see, how-^
ever, he merely altered older Apocrypha to accord
with his views.

The original sources of this literature, which tra-
velled through Europe and left permanent traces
of its influence on literature, poetry, painting, and
sculpture, are Greek texts, which came to Con-

■ Btautinople from the East and passed on thence to
the Bogomils. A second source, equally Oriental in

■ its origin, was supplied by Jewish legends, found in

36 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

the Haggadical writings, and iu particular in a book
called Scplier Hayashar. This book, which haa
the title of a work quoted in the Bible (Joshua x.

* 1 3), is a kind of Biblical history, wherein Genesis
and Exodus are completed by numerous ancient
legends, which are mostly incorporated without
alteration. Thus the Biblical history becomes a
Biblical romance ; truth and fiction are inextri-
cably mixed, and form together a complete Bible
adapted to pious readers. It did not, however,
prevent separate sections existing in independent
form — as, for example, the story of Abraham and
Nimrod, the struggles of the sous of Jacob with
the inhabitants of Palestine, the legends of the
birth and death of Moses, &c., &c.

Precisely the same thing we have before us in the

' Old Slavonian literature of the Bogomils. "We have
special Apocryphal writings attributed to various
personages; we have also — though this has been
hitherto unknown — an Old Slavonian Bible-story,
in which all these legends form one whole, and
which enjoyed enormous popularity and wide-spread
circulation. This Bible-story, called Palma {i.e.,
Uakaia Aiadi'iicri), may have been originally copied
from a Greek model, but in its existent and per-
haps extended form it contains several legends
which are almost literally translated from the
Sepher Hayashar. This Palcea belongs probably
to the tenth century, and is thus several centuries

OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA. 27

older than the correspoudmg works in Germany
and France. These are independent of Comestor's
work Historia Scholastica, which, as I may incident-
ally remark, usurped later on the name of the Bihlia
Historiale. The Speculum Historiale of St. Vin-
cent of Beauvais is likewise a kind of Eible-atory,
Neither of these have hitherto been satisfactorily
traced to t)ieir origin. It is only natural to assume
that, like the earliest translations of the Bible,
these Bible-stories may have beeu derived from
the heretical sects, especially as these Bible-stories
would find an even easier access to the people
owing to their legendary and poetic form. It is,
of course, also possible that they were afterwards
revised and freed from their heretical elements.
A few traces of these still remain, e.g., a cosmogony
varying in order and in details from that of Gene-
sis. Other details confirming this view must be
here omitted, as I devote a special chapter to a
more close inquiry into the origin and the sources
of these Bible-histories.* I must content myself
here with these short hints and revert to the story
Bible as it appears in Slavonic literature.

As I have already remarked, this contains a
number of Old Testament Apocrypha, to which it
is confined. Instead of going through them all, I
will select some of them of special importance for
their wide-spread or deep influence, and follow

* Appendix A.

s8 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

tliese through tlie stages of their development till
they become part and parcel of the popular mind,
I reserve the Apocrj-pha of the New Testament for
the next chapter, as they present peculiar features,
jind form a transition to the literature of amulets.

Looking to the cosmogony,* we find that it
presents an unusual form. On the first day God
created heaven and earth ; on the second, sun,
lEOOD, find stars; on the third, paradise; on the
fourth, the sea; on the fifth, birds and beasts; on
the sixth, Adam; and on the seventh God breathed
into him the breath of life. It is, as it were, a

' counterpart of St. Basil's Hexaemeron, which
attempted to explain the creation according to
the Bible. The fallen angels then occupy a large

. space, but I must here pass them over, as they do
not offer anything special, and the legend never
existed as a separate Apocryphon.

Of still greater length and of far ivider import-
ance are the legends which deal with the creation
of man, his fall, repentance, and death. The
mind of Christendom has always laid grea.t weight
upon all this, in order to reach its scheme of
redemption, to which everything in the Biblical
stories had to refer, as the goal of human fate.
Beginning and end of the process had to be com-
bined, and the pious required a prophetic glimpse
of the final redemption while dealing with the

• Tihonravov, Pamjatniki otreKeaDDi rusakoi litcratury, St, Petersburg,
Moscau, 1863, ii. p. 443 leq.

OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA.

29

beginaiug of siu. This association of ideas, per-
ceiving in the Biblical history a religious drama,
where the restoration of the fallen humanity is
foreshadowed in the Old Testament and fulfilled in
the New Testament, is an essential characteristic of
this heretical literature, to whieh I will revert,
and which I hope will give us the key for the
origin of the mediaeval Bihlia Historiale, and in
connection with it the " Bible of the Poor."
Hence the^ extent and number of apocryphal
tales dealing with this episode. These received
various names, such aa Historia Adw et Evm, or
the "Legend of the Cross," or the "Pilgrimage of
Seth to Heaven." In Slavonic we have, in the
first place, the creation of man told in the favourite
form of question and answer, as we find it fre-
quently in the Middle Ages, especially in the so-
called LucidaHus. In a fifteenth-century copy of
this Slavonic text * we read as follows : —

" Question. What holds up the earth ?

" Answer. The water.

" Question. And what the water ?
^ Aihswer. A mighty rock.

¥ Question. And what the mighty rock ?
swer. Four golden fishes (whales).

" Question. And what the fishes ?

"Answer. A stream of fire.

" Question, And what holds the fire ?

• TlhonravoT, LI.

30 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

"Answer. A fire double as hot.

" Question. And what liolds up this fire 1

"Aiisiver. An iron tree, which was the first thing
created, and its roots are supported by God."

Then comes the cosmogony, which we have given,
only it is in the form of question and answer, which
continue as follows : —

" Question. How did God create Adam ?

"Answer. Out of eight things; earth, sea, stone,
wind, sun, thought, the speed of the angels, and
finally from the Holy Ghost."

This is made clearer in Jinother MS, of the same
age. "The body is made out of earth, the blood
from the sea, the eyes from the siju, the thoughts
from the clouds, the bones of stone, the breath
from the wind, fertility from fire, and the living
fipirit out of God Himself." '

Both of these accounts have now-a-days become
the common property of the people among all the
Slavonic nations. These as well as the Eoumanians
repeat them in their songs, creeds, and in their
religious ideas, and I might quote innumerable
examples if I dared linger over this point. Even
to the present day the people explain an earth-
quake as a movement of the fish on which the
earth rests. Even in the popular recitations at
Koumanian weddiugsthe origin of man is described
exactly in the same way as the above.

• Pjpin, Ojerku Hteratnnjoi ietorii BtariBjbn pov^stei, St Petersburg, ,
1858, p. 140.

ADAM AND EVE. 31

The tree on wliich the earth stands is of Oriental
origin, and occurs again in Northern mythology in
the form of the Ygdrasil. There we find a parallel
account of the creation of man, but in inverted
order: the giant Ymir creates the world out of his
own limbSj the sea out of his own blood, the moun-
tains out of his bones, the rocks out of his teeth,
the heavens out of his skull, the clouds out of his
humour, and the trees out of his hair.* A corre-
sponding cosmogony is to be found among the
ManichffianSjt according to whom the world was
created out of the first man, the Urmensch of the
Germans, the Adam Kadmon of the Jews. It
also occurs in popular Russian literature, in the
celebrated Goluhinaya Kniga, in which the most
heterogeneous elements have been combined into
an epic whole, and which may be regarded !ia the
outcome of a whole cycle of apocryphal stories. I
wiU therefore give it complete in a literal transla-
tion at the end of the treatment of the apocryphal
literature.

After Adam and Eve had been created by God,
they were tempted by Satan in the form of a
snake with a woman's head ; they fell into sin, and
were driven out of Paradise. All this, together
with their repentance and their contract with
Satan, forms the so-called "Confession of Eve"

* Oriinm, Germ, Mythology, ed. Iv., p. 464 sfj,
+ Flligel, Maui, p. S7 seq., and the anuotatiuos.

33 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

{Ispovedanye Evyne), which is also an introduction
to the "Legend of the Cross," and indeed represents
a peculiar treatment of it. Its contents are plainly
dualistic, which settles its origin -without difficulty.
Slightly condensed, it runs as follows :* —

"Eve tells her children that when God had
created everything, all things stood under her rule,
and no beast dared, to touch her. But then came
the Devil in the form of a bright angel and tried to
seduce her. She repulsed him, and then came the
serpent as a bright angel and offered her the for-
bidden fruit. She trusted in the serpent, as favoured
by God, and ate, and gave some to Adam. Imme-
diately the leaves fell from all the trees except the
fig-tree. Then God drove tbem from Paradise. The
Archangel Toil interceded for Adam and Eve in
vain. They stood for a fortnight before the gates
of Paradise, and then had to leave in order to find
something to eat, but they found only thistles. So
they returned to Paradise, and Adam complained
of the good fortune which he had lost, and begged
God to give him at least a flower as a remembrance
of it. God therefore sent to him incense {ladan and
lihan). At their further request, God sent them
the Archangel loil, and he gave them the seventh
part of Paradise for them to work in ; at the same
time he sent all the animals out of Paradise, and ,
gave them to Adam. Adam, however, had scarcely <

* GaatEr, Litenitura populani coumna, Bucucesti, tSS3, p. 271 k;.

ADAM AND EVE. 33

plough the earth, when Satan appeared
and eaid, ' Tbe earth ia mine ; Paradise and
heaven belong to God. If yon are willing to be-
come mine, you may till the earth ; but if you
wish to belong to God, go back to Paradise.'
Adam answered, ' The earth and the heavens are
God's.' The Devil said, ' Give me a written agree-

■ ment that you are my property, and I will leave
you.' And Adam said, ' I and my children be-
long to Him whose ia the earth.' Thereupon the
Deyil rejoiced, and broke a .stone and wrote this
upon it. (Another variant makes Adam place hia
hand upon it, leaving a trace of it on the stone.)
The Devil preserved this stone in the Jordan, and

' placed four hundred devils to guard it. "Wlien the
Saviour came, He placed Himself on this stone

■ when He waa baptized in the Jordan, and broke
it, so that the agreement between Adam and the
Devil was at an end.

"Adam now went before the gates of Paradise
and cried and mourned; at last he determined to
do penance. Eve vent to the river Tigris and
stood in it forty days ; nevertheless the Devil tried
to deceive her twice, once in the form of an angel,
the other time in that of Adam. After the forty
days Adam came himself, who had done penance in
. the Jordan, and removed her ; thus they were both
freed from the Devil. Many years passed by ;
Adam became ill ; his children assembled around

34 GREEKO-SLA VONIC LITERATURE.

them and asked them what was the matter, for
they had never before seen anybody ill. Eve said
that he had a longing for the fruits of Paradise,
and that this was the cause of his illness. There-
upon Seth determined to go to Paradise and bring
something thence to satisfy his father. He came
there, and obtained from the angel a branch of the
tree of which they had eaten. Adam recognised
the tree, drew a deep sigh, and waved the branch
round his head and died. Three angels with
lights came to bury him. After these angels had
prayed for a long time, God received the soul of
Adam graciously. Adam was then buried by Seth
in the spot called Gherusia Plata. A voice called
out to Adam, * Eemember what I said to you :
Earth thou art, and unto earth thou shalt re-
turn.' The voice called out to the earth, * It
^ is thine, and was formed from thee : to thee all

*' things return.' And Eve died six days after.

Out of Adam's head a huge tree grew."

The source of this narrative is the so-called
Apocalypse of Moses i'^ but this does not contain
the characteristic point of the contract between
Adam and Satan, in which the dualistic principle
is clearly expressed. Every single episode of this
tale occurs again in varied form in popular litera-
ture. The complaint of Adam is everywhere re-
peated wherever this story reached — in Bulgaria,

* Tischendorf, Apocalypses Apociyphse, Leipzig, 1866, pp. 1-32.

s'

LEGEND OF THE CROSS. 35

Servia, Koumania, and Russia, Cariously enough,
the contract survived in nearly literal form in most
of the reproductions. A part of these popular

, Bong3 became star-songs, orj aa they are called in
England, Cliristmas carols. Iconography also made
use of the legend, and Russian pilgrims often refer
to the stone on which Christ stood at His baptism.
In close connection with this legend stands the
" Legend of the Cross," one of the most wide-spread
and celebrated of the Middle Ages. It is found in
Latin MSS. of the twelfth century, and finds a place
in Provenjal, Italian, German, and English litera-
ti-re. The legend in its simplest form is part of the
apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, and it has often
been versified. References to it are to be found in
Dante. It was made the subject of a poem by
Gottfried and Viterbo, and of a drama by Cal-
deron. It is, of course, accepted by the Bogomils,
and attributed to Popa Jeremiah, their founder.
In Old Slavonic it is still extant in two forms, of
which one is by Gregorius Theologus, the other by a
certain Severiau Gavalski. I will here give the ver-

. sion which comes nearest to the original Bogomilist
form, and is more extensive than the parallels of
Western Europe. In the Old Slavonian version the
history of all the threocrosses is given, whereas in the
"West onlythat of theSaviour is dealtwith. Brought
into proper order,* the legend i"uns as follows : —

• Cf. Wefaelofsky, RazyBlianija, St. Pttersburg, 1883, x. pp, 367-424.

36

GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

" Wlieii God created the world, only He amf
Satanael were in existence. The latter stole soniefl
of all the seeds which God sowed in the earth, andw
planted them in Paradise. Thereupon God drove"!
him out of Paradise, and Satanael became black.1
From the seeds he had planted rose a mighty tree.!
with three branches ; one belonging to Adam, tbes
other to Eve, and the third to God. At the Fallj-T
■ Adam's branch fell into the Tigris, and was takea j
out therefrom ; Eve's was carried by the Flood to a |
place called Merra. After the death of Adam, SethJ
kindled a perpetual fire in his memory by the side:!
of the tree, and placed wild beasts to guard it.J
When Lot sinned, Abraham set him as a penancefl
to bring three logs from the tree, to plant them and
tend them with water, which he should bring in
his mouth. His sin would be forgiven when the
logs had grown. They grew into a mighty tree..!
Moses took the second root, and with it made sweet I
the bitter waters of Marab. Both the trees were!
brought to Jerusalem by King Solomon to be used I
in the building of the Temple, but they could notJ
be adapted to that purpose. At times they weraJ
too short, at times too long. On one of them QueeaJ
Sivila {i.e., of Sheba) sate and burnt herself, where*!
upon the trees were hidden in the Temple, It waaj
on these trees that the two thieves were crucifiedJ
the good thief on Lot's, and the wicked one oni|
Eve's.

LEGEND OF THE CROSS. 37

"Now Seth liad brought a brancli of the third
tree to his father, who made himself a crown out of

■ it, in which he was buried. Out of this grew a
wonderful tree, with three trunks that yet formed
but one. This tree was brought by the demons to

■ Solomon, who by this means obtained possession of
Adam's skull, which was in the roots of the tree.
This was so huge that a servant of Solomon once
took refuge in it from a storm. Solomon ordered
the skull to be brought to Jerusalem, and to be
stoned. This was the origin of the place called
Lilhostroton {also Golgotha). This tree also was
of no use for building purposeSj and was taken up.
It became the Cross of the Saviour. When Christ
was crucified on it, His blood fell through the rock
upon the head lying beneath, thus freeing Adam
from siu, and redeeming him,"

This is the Slavonic form of the legend, and there
can be no doubt as to how it arose- The mention
of Satanael alone would prove its heretical origin,
and still more the whole line of thought, so far a.s
it is preserved after the orthodox revision that it
has undergone. It is only from the standpoint of
Bogomilism, which rejected the cross, that we can
explain the plantiug of it being attributed to Sata-
nael, or the trait that the demons brought it to
Jerusalem.

Of the other episodes I will only linger over that
relating to Lot, which reminds us of Aaron's rod.

jS GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

and which, in the form of a symbol of repentance,
has spread so far. "Who does not remember the
saga of Taimhauser, or the innumerable Slavonic,
Boumanian, German, and French legends in which.
the blossoming tree ia a sign of sin and for-
giveness?" Still more numerous are the legends
in which the appearance of blossoms on dead
branches is mentioned, though these are undoubt-
edly derived from the Biblical story. Among
others, I may mention a saga about Charlemagne,
which is preserved in Tiirpin's Chronicle. Saints
innumerable have performed the same miracle, and
even the beginning of Bohemian history is con-
nected with a similar miracle.

I must pass over other apocryphal stories, and
can only refer to the rich embellishment which the
stories of Cain, Lamech, Noah, and others received.
Melchisedek, who is specially mentioned in the
New Testament, is represented by three Apocrypha,
which aim at esplaining his omission of the name
of his parents and his character as " priest of
God." The best known is that translated from
the Greek of Athanasius, which represents him
meeting Abraham in the beginning and being
selected as priest by the latter.

A favourite theme was the life of Aljraham, his
destruction of the idols of Nineveh, his contest
with Nimrod, and so on up to his death. With

• Gaster, ;. e.

LEGENDS OF ABRAHAM. 39

regard to the last topic, we have in Slavouic litera-
, ture an Apocryplion which, so far aa is at present
known, has not been found in Greek, though there
can be no doubt that it originally existed in that
language. It is there described how Abraham waa
taken up into heaven, and saw there the judg-
ment of men after death ; he returns to earth, and
struggles against death with all his might. Death
. appears to him in an attractive form, and finally
deceives him into drinking his cup of poison.
Pounded on an earlier Oriental legend dealing
with the death of Moses, this Apoeryphon forms a
model of a whole series of similar imaginative
products portraying the struggle between man
and death, and the final victory of the latter.
Almost all literatures present examples of this,
especially in the form of folk-songs. In modern
Greek, the conflict of the hero Aniketos (Russian,
Anika-voyn) or Digenis Akritas with Charon and
with death forma the subject of such songs, I
may also remind you of the danses macabres of
the Middle Ages, of Titian's celebrated picture,
&e. The counterpart of this, the flight of tlie
hero to the land of the immortals, is an equally
wide-spread theme from Ireland to India. But we
cannot linger here, nor even on the Testaments of
the twelve sous of Jacob (of which we have a
Slavonic translation of the fourteenth century, of im-
portance for the criticism of the Greek test), nor at

4o GREEKO-SLA VONIC LITER A TURE.

the minor legends about Moses, but must pass on
at once to the legends about Solomon, which are of
such importance in the history of literature.

The Biblical accounts of the wisdom and richea
of Solomon, the visit of the Queen of Sheba, the
building of the Temple, and so on, caused him, even
in early times, to be made the hero of a whole
cycle of legends, round which other stories and
legends, derived from various sources, crystallised.
These in their turn underwent so many changes
in their wanderings towards Europe, that it often
requires a special investigation before we can
recognise the original legend in its latest form. I
will draw attention to two of the episodes, because
one of them had great influence on Russian epic
poetry, and the other is connected with the saga
of Merlin and with Bertoldo. Let us begin with
the latter.*

"In order to build the Temple, Solomon tried
. to get Eitovras {i.e., Kentauros), the chief of the
demons, into his power. His general seized Kito-
vras, bound him with a chain, on the links of
which the name of God was written, and brought
him to Jerusalem. They went straight on, but as
they would have destroyed the house of a widow if
they had continued to do so, Kitovras broke one of
his ribs in two in order to avoid it. He heard a man
asking for shoes which should last seven years ; he

■• " Weaadofsky, Solom. i Kitovtaa, p. aog «;.

LEGENDS OF SOLOMON. 41

burst out laughing. He sees a prophet ; he laughs
again. He sees a wedding; he weeps. Pinally,
he guides a drunkard the right way. "When
brought before Solomon, he casts at his feet a rod
four feet iu length. He explains to Solomon that
the bird Nogoi possesses the worm Shamir, by
which stouea can be split without the aid of iron,
the use of which was forbidden in the Temple.
He then explained what had happened. He had
laughed at the buyer of shoes, because he had only
seven days to live. The prophet stood over a
treasure, and promised good luck to other people
when he could not tell his own. The newly
married bride would die in three days ; and the
drunkard was a just man, of whom it was said in
heaven that he was worthy of protection. The
rod gave the length of the grave which would
receive Solomon at his death, though he was now
so ambitious of power."

This remarkable tale is originally Talmudical,
where the demon is called Ashmedai, here Kitovras,
from the Greek Kentauros. The story occurs in
a German form under the name of Solomon and
Markolph, and develops into a mere dialogue
between a king and a sharp-witted but vulgar
' man. Between the two we have the saga of
Merlin, in which Merlin plays the part of Ashmedai-
Kitovras ; for he is brought before King Arthur,
goes through the same exploits on the way, and

42 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

explains them duriug the interview.* We have, 1
further, the dialogue between Ben Sira and N'ehu-l
kadnezar, and in a later form, in Anglo-Latin, j
a dialogue between Saturn and Marolph, and a j
■ etill later development in Bertoldo, the well-known |
Italian chapbook.

Still more like a romance is the other specifically I
Slavonic story of Solomon and Kitovras or Solomon I
and For. This runs as follows :~Kitovras hears of 1
the beauty of Solomon's wife, and sends a magician 1
to bewitch her. He succeeds, and brings her to I
Kitovras, Solomon comes in disguise, after he had |
arrayed his army dressed in three uniforms before J
the city. His wife recognises him and delivers!
him up to Kitovras, who orders him to be hanged. ■
Solomon begs as a last favour that the trumpets 1
be blown three times, as he is a king. At this j
signal his army advances in its battalions, red, I
white, and black (explained by Solomon as fire,!
clouds, and devils). They kill Kitovras and Lis j
people, and likewise the faithless wife. This tale, i
either in whole or in part, has passed almost literally I
into all the popular literatures of these peoples, ]
and out of it stories and tales, and especially epic I
songs, have been made. I mention only Roland, J
who blows three times Lis trumpet, &c.

Less important are the legends of the destructioal
of Jerusalem and the seventy 3''ears' sleep of Abed- I

* Ellis, Eiirlf Eoglisb Metrical Romanoes, ed. Halliwell, 1S4S, p. 31 k^

THE BABYLONIAN KINGDOM. 43

melekh. He afterwards receives Jeremiah when he
retiiras from exile with his people ; Jeremiah, seeing
a heavenly vision, announces the coming of the
Messiah, whereupon be is stoned by the people.
The story, which is only to be found in Slavonic,
modern Greek, Roumanian, and jEtbiopic, seems
also to be one of the old apocryphal legends, which
have hitherto been regarded as lost.

Finally, we may refer to the legend of the Baby-
lonian kingdom, in which a king orders the image of
a dragon to be placed on all objects. As a punish-
ment God causes all these dragons to spring into
life and devom- the people, whUe round the city an
immense snake coiled itself. There is the gi-ave
of Sliadrach, Meshach, and Ahednego, and thence
the messenger of the Emperor Leo brings a crown
sent by these saints.* That Babylon was the Lome
of dragons and basilisks was a wide-spread belief
during the Middle Ages, and of this I might adduce
many examples. I mention here only Sir John
Mandeville.

Out of all these and other smaller elements
was compiled the Slavonic Bible-story, which exer-
cised so important an influence on the pojjular
imagination.

• WeBBBlofaky, Arohiv t. Slav. Philologie, ii. I
Peterbbury, iSSj, i. pp. 9-14-

, and Zumetkl, SL

III.

THE APOCRYPHA OF THE NEW TESTAMENT,^ANTI-
CHRIST.^LIVES OF THE SAINTS.--THE LETTER
FROM HEAVEN AND THE FLAGELLANTS.^THE
''GOLUBINAYA KNIGA/'

III.

Pious curiosity, that is, the wish to fill up the
lacunae presented by the Biblical relations, was also
the principal cause that led to the origination of
the Apocrypha of the New Testament, especially the
writings commonly known as Apocryphal Gospels.
As Mr. Cowper says in his introduction to the
English translation, " Men were curious to know
more than the Canonical Gospels contained. Frag-
mentary stories or traditions were abroad relating
to Joseph and Mary and their families, to the birth
and infancy, the trial and crucifixion of Jesus, to
Pilate, Joseph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, and so
on. How pleasant if all these fragments could be
rendered complete, and especially if the silence of
the four Gospels could be supplemented ! The
wish was not a barren one, and from time to time
writings appeared professing to supply the infor-
mation which was wanted. Some of these ^\Tit-
ings may be considered introductory to the evan-
gelical narratives, others as appendices, but all as
supplementary in one way or another. Joseph
and Mary were no longer the obscure individuals
the Gospels have left them ; the incarnation, birth.

48

GRBEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

and eavly life of Jesus no more remained imper-
fectly recorded ; the last days of Christ's earthly
life were set forth with wondrous minuteness of
detail ; the space between the death and resurrec-
tion of the Saviour was filled up with particulars
of what happened in the unseen world, as well as
at Jerusalem and elsewiiere. Pilate was pursued
into every nook and corner ; all he did and said
was noted down, and the steps of the Nemesis
which hunted him beyond the very grave were
diligently traced."

No question that these writings were largely
U3ed by heretical sects, which sought support from
Apostolical or Divine authorities. So we find a
Gospel ascribed to Nicodemus, another even to
Marcian, the head of the Gnostics, &c. These ,
books were used to support various doctrines and
opinions concerning Christ, Mary, the resurrection, I
and so forth.

The Apocrypha of the New Testament make
, indeed their appearance very early in Slavonic
literature, as well as elsewhere, but under some-
what different circumstances to those of the Old
Testament. While the latter were more or less '
inserted into the actual text of the Bible, the other '
Apocrypha found no place in the actual text of the
body of the New Testament, and had, as it were,
an independent existence. This fact is connected
with the circumstance that the Bogomils, as well ,

NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA.' 49

as at an earlier date the Gnostics and MauieLseans,
were opposed more or less to the Old Testament. Its
only value was as an announcement and prepara-
tion for the New Testament. Interpolations and
expansions were therefore permitted iu the former.
Their relation to the New Testament was quite
different, since it was the foundation of their creed,
and as such enjoyed special sanctity. It did not,
however, prevent numerous legends of Christ, of
the Holy Virgin, and of the Apostles to be circulated
and modified in accordance with the desires and
views of the heretics. On the contrary, the holy
character attributed to this pseudo-epigraphical
literature raised its value and made it fitting for
the propagation of those views.

Aa is well known, the Apostle John, the author
of the Apocalypse, which answered so well to their
system, was the Beloved Apostle of the Bogomils,
and many a book and revelation is ascribed to him.
The Gospel of St. John was especially worshipped,
and we will see farther on another book containing
the fundamental belief of the Bogomils ascribed also
to St. John. Incidentally I wUl mention here the
Knights Templars and the Knights of St. John, both
later accused of heresy, as well as the Freemasons,
who all took their oath on the Gospel of St. John
and bad a special feast of St. John. The German
Johannisminne may also be brought into connection
with this, being till now not satisfactorily explained.

so GRBEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

The Bogomila attributed, further, a number of
. apocryphal tales to the Apostle Paul, aa well as to
the Holy Virgin, or, better, accepted and changed
them.

A peculiarity of nearly all these was that they
dealt with eschatological questions. While the Old
Testament, as enlarged by the means I have de-
scribed, answered the inquiring or curious minds
with regard to the creation of the work!, of man,
or the origin of evil, the Apocryplia of the New
Testament solved the problem of the fate of man
after death, and thus completed the drama of re-
demption. These writings included descriptions
of heaven and hell, and gave instructions how to
reach the former or how to avoid the eternal fires
of the latter.

There is now a great difference between the
Apocrypha of the New Testament and those of the
Old, especially as regards those with which I am
dealing. The Apocrypha of the Old Testament
gradually make their way among the people, but in
the process often lose their name. Their contents
are preserved, episodes out of them are freely modi-
fied, and they thus pass, as it were, into the very I
blood of the people. Being assimilated by the
people, they form a basis for further poetic expres-
sion, while the Apocrypha of the New Testament,
attributed to holy personages, who are actually |
worshipped and form a part of the religious creed,

NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA. ji

are presented, with slight alteratioua, ia a dislincb
book form. They are never iceorporated into the
"body of the Foly Scriptures, but hare themselves
their own hoU7iess. The very names given to them
eudow them with a kind of saiietily.

Of grenter popularity, and of greater importanca
for the literature and civilisation of the world is
the " Gospel of Nicodemus," especially through its
legend of the cross, already mentioned, and above all
by the " Descent of Christ to Hell," which is there
described by two eye-witnesses from hell. We have
presented to us the approach of the Saviour, the
bursting open of the gates of hell, and the hberation
of all souls, from Adam downwards. It also con-
tains wonderful details of the trial of Christ before
Pilate and of His passion. There is scarcely a
European language into which this Gospel has not
been translated. Tbe Latin translations are very
early, and were inserted by Jacobus a Voragiiie
in his Historia Lombardica, or " Golden Le-
gend," a name of which Longfellow made use. It
does not come within our scope to foUow the
work through all the literatures of the world. I
will content myself with referring to the Anglo-
Sason translation which was printed at Oxford in
1 698, though this had been preceded by an English
one in 1507. The well-known "Passion plays"
are based on this Gospel, and the influence of its
"Descent to Hell" is proved by the many imita-

52 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

tious, including those of Dante and St Patrick. It
is true that cliiseical literature had its *' Descents to
Hades," but at the time when this literature appears
the influence of the classical models may well be
doubted. Many references in Dante show clearly
that he was acquainted with the " Gospel of Nico-
demus." In Slavonic literature, besides the text
itself, we have many reminiscencea of it among the
popular literature. The "Descent to Hell" itself
gave rise to a remarkable imitation, " The Descent
' of the Holy Virgin," and it is easy to imagine the
influence it would have on the popular fancy,
especially as it was from the beginning regarded
as the clue to the mysterious life after death, and
therefore gave an opportunity of entering into all
possible torments, whUe the original Gospel only
spoke of a place of wailing and gnashing of teeth.
It is not at all surprising that we meet with this
in versified form when the popular songs deal with
man's soul after death. In Eoumania it plays a
great part in the so-called wakes for the dead, i.e.,
in the songs sung by the side of the corpse.

On the other hand, the story Las become quite a
popular and largely circulated book, and is called
silso "Letter of the Mother of God," as a parallel
and counterpart to another "Letter of God" Him-
Bclf, both of which I shall shortly examine.

In close connection with the " Descent to Hell "
is another apocryphal writing attributed to St. Paul,

i

NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA. 53

■which is likewise of great antiquity. This deals
particularly with the coDditioa of the soul at the
moment of death, with the severance of the soul
from the earth, and with the way it must go to
reach heaven or hell. This too was a theme likely
to rouse curiosity, and its treatment would be wel-
come to pious believers.

The first support for the contrast between the
deaths of the righteous and the unrigjiteous is to
be found in the Bible, where it is said, "It came
to pass that tbe beggar died, and was carried by
angels into Abraham's bosom." This was repeated
about innumerable saints, as St. Barbara, St. Paul
the Hermit, &c. But the clear contrast between
righteous and unrighteous is to be found in a re-
markable manner in the writings of Mani, the
founder of the sect of Manichteans, who has a special
chapter on the point, almost in exactly the same
words.* The same picture is frequently repeated
in religious and mystical tracts, in burial and other
sermons, and in other moral writings intended to
influence the imagination of men by this means.
We thus find it even at the present day in folk-
. books, lis in the so-called " Mirror of Human Life "
in French, t

Especially noteworthy are, further, the stations or
posts through which the sou) has to pass before it
reaches heaven. These are guarded by the demons

* Gf. Fliigel, Mani, pp. loo-ioi. + Nisard, ii. ag.

54 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

of human paasioiia, which demand their rights from
' the soul. This idea arose first in Egypt, it occurs in
the " Book of Enoch/' &c., and the early Fathers of
the C3iurcb concerned themselves greatly with this
question. We meet with it also among the Mani-
cbseans, and very often among the moral writings
intended for popular reading. Several visions of the
saints repeat it, St. Macarius and others, that of St.
Basil the younger at the greatest length. The idea
took root in popular songs, and especially in popular
superstitions : songs at wakes wish that the departed
may come safely through the " stations " of heaven.
Many ceremonies connected with burial may be
traced back to these tales of the fate of man after
death. Most remarkable of all, this description,
combined with that of hell, has given the material
for the Russian block-book of the last judgment of
tlie world. A careful comparison between picture
and tale brings out clearly the connection of the two.
This may be traced farther back, as the Russian was
originally South Slavonic or Byzantine, and served
as frescoes in church. The picture is rightly to be
called " The Last Judgment of the Soul after Death :
its Reward and Punishment," for this is aU of the
last judgment to be found iu it.

I have perhaps lingered too long over this Apoca-
lypse, and must pass on to the legend in which the
same Macarius plays the principal part, namely, his
journey to Paradise. This was a harder task. The

NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA. j;

Apostle Paul, it is true, saw Paradise iu liis Apoca-
lypse, but he speaks little of it. It seems as if only
the sorrows of men can make eloqueut and can be
depicted, but not their happiness ; so he tells very
little about this, and what little he does say failed
to find its way into the mind of the people. Others
.sought to find Paradise, but they only saw it from
afar, and could not come near to it. This was the
case with Alexander of Macedon in the Alexandreis,
and this too happened to St. Maearius, whose apocry-
phal tale is entirely taken from the work of Pseudo-
Callisthenes. Happiness is not granted to man in
this life !

Among those questions which have moved men's
souls, and stiU move them, is then the question of
the end of all things. When and how will the end
of the world come ? It is true the Apocalypse of
St. John had given an answer to this, and depicted
in glowing colours the approach of Antichrist, the
signs of the world's end, and the last judgment.

It is sufficiently well known how these thoughts
interested not alone the Christian, but also the
Jewbh and Pagan worlds. This description of the
burning up of the world is especially emphasised
in the religion of Zoroaster. We meet with it too
in Mani, as well as in Teutonic mythology, where
it plays a principal part. I do not, of course,
propose to pursue these ideas farther. I will
content myself with remarking that St. Jerome

S6

GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

has a similar description of the signs which are to
precede tlie last judgment. So, too, the Vener-
able Bede, and after him a crowd of ecclesiastical
writers.

The deep impresaion made upon the mind of the
^ Slavonic peoples by the idea of Antichrist as the
type of the godless is proved by a' number of sagas,
songs, fairy tales, and superstitions. The saga of
Gog and Magog is connected with it. This is an
episode of the Alexandreis, in which it is told how
Alexander had shut up fifteen nations under moun-
tains near the Caucasus. These peoples will appear
at the time of Antichrist and do all manner of
cruel deeds. Exactly similar to this is a legend
of South Russia. The legend of Antichrist and
of the last judgment often appear in the Russian
picture or block books [Luhohiija Kartinki), which
constitute so large a part of Russian folk-lore.
to the popularity of the subject, which
1 the terror of the people, many descriptions
were naturally put into circulation ; among them
two celebrated ones, attributed respectively to
Hyppolitus and Methodius of Patara. Both are
well known in early Slavonic literature, and are
often repeated in later adaptations.

Besides this Apocrypha, which had so great an
influence, many other Apocryphal tales were early
translated into Slavonic, especially the apocry-
phal Acta of the Apostles, of Peter, Andrew, and

i

NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA. 57

EiiSnus, and those were especially preferred which
■were most rich in miracles, and were thus best
assured of a favourable reception among the people.

Lives of the saints were also translated, espe-
cially those which were full of wonders, like that
of St, Theodore Tiron, who slew a dragon in a
forest and afterwards became a martyr, or like
that of St. George, who made the Devil speak in
a statue of Apollo and drove him out of it. Eape-
cial favourites were the hermits, like the settlers
of the Thebais in Egypt, St. Anthony, St. Simon
Stylites, St. Maearius, whom we have frequently
mentioned, then St. Nicholas of Myra, and others
whose names are legion.

In equal favour were the romantic lives which
more or less resembled fairy tales without their
fantastic elaboration. For example, the life of
St. Alexius, the man of God, St. Eustachiua, and
so many others, who passed through so many mar-
vellous adventures before they obtained the crown
of happiness or martyrdom.

I have named these lives because we can prove
their influence on the popular literature. The
heroic deeds of the one in knightly encounters with
monsters and demons, or the struggles of another
with the passions, have raised a loud response in the
harp-strings of popular poetry, and their deeds
resound in many a folk-song, in which now one
now the other is particularly emphasised.

S8

GREBKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

Qoser inquiry into the process of this transition
from tales into ballads and from ballads into
lyrics will lead to many an unexpected result.
Thus we can show that the nanae of the person
disappears gradually, and a personal song, if we
may so term it, is changed iuto a general imper-
sonal one. Thus, to give an example, there is in
the Life of St. Josaphat, which I shall have to
deal with later on, a song describing how he
flees into the desert to his teacher, and gives up
riches, happiness, and spleudour. Now we can
actually show how this song in this form changed
gradually in Bulgaria, Ronmauia, and Russia into
a song of the stranger, i.e., of a man who bemoans
all that he has left behind in his home. Many
more examples might be given of this kind in
popular literature showing this transition : the
subject remains, but the personal accessories dis-
appear. I must, however, return to the Apocry-
phal literature.

Before 1 treat of the complete books, I must
consider a few fragmentary works which deal
directly with the life of Christ. There is first the
EvangeliuTii Infantix, which is not all extant. It
occurs in the dialogues of the three saints, Basil,
John, and Chrysostora, and is uothiog but a kind
of Lucidarius, From this book many legends
have been preserved, and have been transplanted
t iuto Christmas carols. Among these there is the

I

DESCENT OF THE HOLY VIRGIN. 59

well kuown elsewhere, of the sacred tree
under which the Holy Family rested in the flight
to Egypt, The tree hends low, that the Mother
■ of God may the more easily pluck its fruit, and
when the sun rises high up in heaven, it spreads
its branches out so as to shade the Holy Family.
Parallel passages are easily to be found in Cbriatmaa
carols, in songs, and even in iconographical descrip-
tions of the flight to Egypt.

Passing over other fragmentary Gospels, there
is, further, the above-mentioned Gospel of Nicode-
mus, preserved, as it seems, only in an abridged
and incomplete form in the Slavonic literature,
but which gave rise to the " Descent of the Holy
Virgin." This is, besides, one of the oldest tests
of Slavonic literature. The contents of it, taken
from a copy of the twelfth century, run as fol-
lows ; * —

" Once upon a time the Holy Virgin prayed
to God on the Mount of Olives, and begged Him
to send the Archangel Michael to show her the
puuishments of men. Then came the Archangel
with a number of angels. And she asked him,
' How many pnuishmenta are there, and are men
really punished?' And be answered, 'There are
innumerable punishments ; ' and he ordered the
Angel of the South to open hell. And she saw a
multitude of men and .women in great anguish.

* TihoDiaTOT, iL p. 33 leq.

6o CREEKO-SLA VONIC LITERA TURE.

The angel explained to her tbsit these were men
,wbo had worshipped created things, as gods, sun,
moon, and stars, and the Slavonic gods Trojan,
Hors, Veles, and Perun, and they still hankered
after evil ; therefore were they punished.

" Farther on she saw a thick darkness which
covered the people. At her request this cloud dis-
appeared for a moment. The punished ones could
not see her, because they had seen no light for an
endless time. The angel said that these were they
who had not believed in the Trinity nor in the Holy
Virgin. She wept bitterly over them, and went on
towards the south, where there is a burning stream.
In this men were lying, some completely immersed,
others only partially. These were the dishonest
and the cannibals, i.e., those who ruined others.
At one place she saw men hanged upside down, and
being gnawed by worms. These were the lovers of
gold and silver. Again, she saw women hanging
by their teeth, and dragons coming out of their
mouths. These were they that listen at doors and
then tell lies. Thence the Holy Virgin went to the
North. There she found a burning cloud in which
were fiery beds, on which lay men and women.
They had not got up on Sunday to go to church.
In another place men sat on burning stools. These
had not stood up before the priests in church.
Again the Holy Virgin looked and saw a mighty
iron tree. On its boughs hung hooks with men

DESCENT OF THE HOLY VIRGIN. 6i

hanging by their tongues. These were those who
had caused enmity between man and man, 'Farther
on she sees a man being eaten by a bird with wings
and three heads. AVith one of these it covered his
eyes, with the other his moutb, go that he could
not pray to God for mercy. This was a man who
knew the Scriptures hut did not follow them.
Then she sees the punishment of unworthy priests,
who were careless in their duties or immoral in
their lives. At last she comes to a mighty stream
of fire, which boils like the water in a kettle and
tosses like the waves of the sea. Here were Jews,
heathens, and renegade Christians, who had fullen
from the true faith, and had served the Devil.

" Then the Holy Virgin arose and went to the
, throne of God and begged for mercy for the souls
in torment. She called to her aid Moses the law-
giver, Paul the apostle and spreader of the Epistles,
and John the Evangelist, but all in vain. At last
she begs Michael the Archangel and the choir of
angels to pray with her for mercy from God. Christ
therefore descends, and when the tortured souls
see Him they pray to Him for mercy. Christ
thereupon assures them, at the request of His
Mother, that their punishment shall be remitted
from Green Thursday to Pentecost."

So far goes this fanciful description in an abridged
form. Similar descriptions, and much older even
than the Gospel of Nicodemus, we meet in the old

63 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

apoca]yptical literature of the East. I mention
especially that of the prophet Isaiah, and the old
Persian in the A7-da-Vi?-af-N'dmeh. Here also a
priest travels through hell and Paradise, and de-
scribes at full length the punishments and the woe
of hell. It is a question of special inquiry as to
bow far our Apocalypse was subject to the influence
of the latter, with which it shows an undoubted
Bimilarity.

Besides this, there is also, as I mentioned above,
another eschatological story dealing with the pre-
vious condition of the soul from the moment of its
departure from the body till it reaches heaven or
hell. This Apocryphon is ascribed to the Apostle
Paul, who saw it in an apocalyptical vision.

In the Slavonic literature it has been preserved
in two forms, an abridged and shorter one, and an
enlarged one, correspooding more closely to the
Greek test, and treating not only of the departure
of the soul, but also of the happiness of Paradise
and the torments of hell. This latter part, bow-
ever, has been rendered superfluous by the account
attributed to the Holy Virgin, and thus the first
part formed a separate existence, in which the de-
parture of the soul from the body is described as
follows: * —

" On every day there appear before the throne
of God the angels of good men who live piously,

• St, Novttkovitf, Prinieri KnjiieTnostii ier.ika staroga i Brpako-olotens-
koga, Belgrod, l8;7, p. 437 aej. ; Tihooravuv, ii. 40 sej.

APOCALYPSE OF ST. PAUL.

63

and tliey briug their good deeds before God, full of
' joy and wonderment at the patient piety of man.
Opposite to these appear the angels of bad men,
crying bitterly, and they ask God why they should
sei-ve such men. But God answers that they
should serve them as long as they lived, for perhaps
they might make them better. And the Apoatle
Paul begged of the angel that be might see the place
of the good and the bad souls. He was first taken
to hell, where he saw the wicked spirits who torture
bad men ; they ruled the world and received the
souls of the wicked. Then he saw bright angels,
who were the angela of the good, and were always
ready to receive their souls at the moment of death.
" The Apostle then looked down upon the earth,
and saw it surrounded by a fiery cloud. This con-
sisted of the sins of the world mixed with prayers.
He then desired to witness the death of a just man
and of an unjust man. The angel bids him look
down. He saw a just man and troops of bright
nngels approaching him, and all the good deeds
he had performed on earth. These all receive his
BonI, and say to it three times, ' Soul, soul, look
upon the body in which thou hast lived, for on the
day of judgment thou shalt rejoin it.' This goes
on for three days, then comes the man's angel and
, kisses the soul, and encourages it, for it has done
the will of God. It is then led up to heaven.
On the way thesoul has to pass many stations

GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

. sins aud i

of bad augels, who refer 1

attempt

to drag it down. But the angel supports it, and
the soul reaches heaven unharmed, where it is
greeted and welcomed by innumerable hosts, till
filially God places it in the fields of Paradise.

"Not BO the soul of the sinner. This is taken
in charge by the evil spirits. The guardian angel
weeps and accompanies it to heaven, where God
recalls its sins and condemns it to hell."

I have merely given a short sketch of the contents
of this apocalypse. This part la spun out at length
in a similar vision which St. Macarius is said to have
had in the wilderness. This is the same Macarius
who had a vision of three dead men in the desert,
which became the foundation of the clauses macabres,
which was so called, I suppose, after the name of the
same Macarius, altered to Macaire, Macabre.

The next question after the end of man was
tbat of the end of the world. The Apocalypse
of St. John gave an answer to it, but this was
too general for the pious and ascetic reader of the
olden times, and thus another Apocalypse was
attributed to the same St. John, in which he is re-
presented as asking questions and Christ as giving
answers about the end of all things. ■ This book,
called " Questions and Answers of St. John on
Mount Tabor," is of the more importance as it
became a standard book of the Bogomils. It was
translated in an early period by the Kathars of

APOCALYPSE OF ST. JOHN.
Slavouic into Latin,

6s

'oncorenzo 1

served in a much expanded form in the Acts of
the Inquisition at Carcassone, under the name of
SecretuM Ilsereticoruvi de Concorenzio. There
it is expressly mentioned, "portatum de Bulgaria
a Isfazmio suo episcopo, plenum erroribus." * The
Greek original has been published by Tischendorf,
and we possess Slavonic texts of the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries. The Latin test embraces be-
ginuing and end, and gives first a picture of the
Fall, and describes how Satan first came down to the
earth. He fouud it resting on two fishes, and these
on water, clouds, and fire ; and then it is told how
Satan created this world. It then speaks of bap-
tism, and finally ends with the question of the
second coming of Christ and the overthrow of the
power of Satan. This latter part forms the chief
contents of the extant Slavonic text. Here we
have also the additional trait that a mighty book is
shown to John : " Its tliickness was that of seven
mountains, and its breadth so great that im) human
mind could grasp it ; and this book had seven
seals. In it was written all that is in henven.
and on earth." This commencement and the Latin
version reminds us of the Gohibinaya Kniga,
which is closely connected with it, and its origin
muBt be somehow brought into relation with
this Apocalypse. After this comes the story of

* Thilo, Codex ApocrvphuB, L

66 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TURE.

the second coming, all in the form of question and
answer, and then the signs of the last judgment.
First, Antichrist will appear; he is thus described: —
" His face is dark, the hairs of his head like sharp
arrows, his gaze marvellous, his right eye like the
rising star of morn, his left eye like that of a lion,
his mouth an ell wide, each of his teeth a span
broad, his nails like sickles, his footsteps each two
spans broad, and on his brow is written ' Anti-
Christ.' He will rise up to heaven and descend
to hell, and do all manner of evil deeds to the
righteous. Then God will turn the heaven into
iron, so that it will not rain, and the clouds will
disappear and the winds cease. Then will come
the Prophets Enoch and Elijah, and fight with
Antichrist, but will be defeated by him. Then
the angels will raise all the righteous, and all
holy vessels and books, into the sky, and every-
thing will be destroyed in the conflagration of the
world. The winds will then clear it away, so that
the earth will be white as snow or clean parch-
ment, prepared for the last judgment." Then fol-
lows a powerful, though fantastic, description of
the advent of Christ, when the seven seals are
opened, and the dead as well as Antichrist and his
followers are judged.

One of the most popular legends, of quite a
different character, which plays a great part in the
mediaeval movement, is the " Legend of Sunday,"

LETTER FROM HBA VEN.

6?

Tmore often called also " Tlie Letter from Heaven."
Known in the East as early as the eighth century,
it soon became the common property of all Europe,
Roger of Hovedene gives this " Letter from
Heaven" in Lis Chronicle under the year 1201,
and aays that it had been brought in this year
to England by Abbot Eustachius of Flays- The
letter was directly copied thence by Roger of
Wendover into his own Chronicle. An Auglo-
Sason translation is said to be in existence at
Corpus Christi College in Oxford. The fact that
makes this letter so important is that it became
the leading document of the Flagellants. These
first appeared in Lombardy in the thirteenth cen-

' tury, aud spread as far as Poland and Moravia ;
they then disappear for a time, only to reappear
with renewed vigour in the fifteenth century.
Contemporary writers mention this " Letter from
Heaven" as the writing which they were accus-
tomed to read immediately after their flagellation.
In Slavonic literature, MSS. tif the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries are extant, which are derived
from the Greek, and thus render it probable that the
Latin texts also came from the same source. Its
contents, in the best known form, run as follows :

" Once upon a time in Jerusalem [other texts say
in Rome] there fell upon the Mount of Olives a
stone from heaven, which no man could raise. The
Patriarch and the whole Synod gathered round it,

6S GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

and prayed to God for three days and three nights,
till the stone opened of itself and therein lay a big
roll with the following worda, written by God : —
' I am your God, and ye are my people. I have" ]
already written twice unto you, now I write for J
the third and last time. Ye must fear me. I have 1
already sent you many signs of my wrath, but \
5'e have not hearkened. Ye shall keep holy my 1
Sunday, Friday, and Wednesday. Do ye not 1
know that on a Friday I created Adam ? that j
on a Sunday the Archangel Gabriel brought the I
joyful Annunciation; that on a Sunday I was bap-*
tized in the Jordan ; that I rose again on a Sunc
and will judge the world in that day ? On Wed-
nesday the Jews spoke together how they might
' elay me ; therefore shall ye on that day fast, love
one another, and do good. The Pagans, though
they have not our faith, still do good after their
belief. But ye do it not. Therefore would I have
long ago destroyed you, but that the Holy Virgin
and the Apostles have prayed for you that I should
put off your punishment. Fast ye, therefore, and
keep Sunday, Friday, and Wednesday, and I will
send you my blessing. But if you do not do this,
a terrible punishment will befall you. It will rain
fire and hot water, wild beasts will destroy man-
kind, and among these will be animals having
the head of a lion, the wings of an eagle, hair
instead of feathers, and horses' tails.' "

LETTER FROM HEA VEN.

69

It goes on to say that a voice from heaven
announced that this message came from the in-
visible Father Himself, and woe unto him who did
not believe it, for upon him would come eternal
punishment. Cursed be that priest or deacon who
would not read this message in church, or who did
not copy it out and send it to far lands. On the
other hand, be was to be relieved of all bis sins who
read it and copied it.

Tbis is the main drift of this letter, which was
copied a thousand times, and gradually was used
as an amulet. In later versions of it, help in es-
tremity, freedom from fear, and protection against
tbe attacks of the wicked spirits is promised as
a reward for carrying it. Under the title of
"Letter from Heaven" or "Tbe Lord's Letter,"
this Sunday legend had become a favourite book
for the people in Eoumania and Russia, and even
serves as an amulet.

Tbis deep reverence for the days sanctified by
events in the life of the Saviour led in the East
of Europe to a kind of personification of those
days. Instead of the good fairies of Western tradi-
tion, we have in the fairy tales of those lands St.
Sunday, St. Wednesday, and St. Friday, and we
meet with them in popular songs, especially in songs ;
for Christmas and New Year. Superstitions were
connected with the proper observance of these days.
The slightest work would involve an immediate

70 GREEKO-SLA VONIC LITERATURE.

punishment, Theae consequences, threatened by A
Scripture in the form of outbursts of Nature, were |
taken quite literally, and to each particular deed is J
appropriated its own punishment, e.g., a storm foi
needlework, and so on. We all know the ]
' of the Man in the Moon, a German form of which 1
recognises in him a man who had collected a bundle 1
of wood on a Sunday.*

Once started ou the way of attributing e
Banctity to certain days beyond those of the canon, j
the plan was soon extended to certain Fridays on I
which certain important events are said to have J
happened. This forms the " Legends of the Twelve 1
Fridays," which is still now-a-daya a popular book. (
The basis of this is formed by a disputation i
between Eleftherie the Christian and Tarasie the ]
Jew, on the result of which depends whether the
former should become a Jew or the latter a Chris-
tian. The question put by the Jew is. Which are I
the twelve great Fridays ? Mathia, the son of the j
Jew, betrays them to the Christian, and tells how
they had been written down by the Apostles and ]
hidden by the Jews. I may give here from a MS. j
of the fifteenth century the first three ; —

"The first Friday is on the 6th March; on this \
day Adam transgressed the command of God and i
was driven out of Paradise. The second Friday j
is before the Annunciation; on this Cain killed
Abel and brought death into the world. The j

* Gaater, Lit, Pop., p. 371 ifq.

GOLUDI^^AYA KNIQA.

71

third Friday is that of Clirist'a crucifixion ; ou
this He sacrificed Himself for the redemption of
sinners." And so it goes on. The later the text,
the more details are given to each day, in order
to make them more important and to encourage
observance of them and fasting upon them.

The mosb important example of all tliis literary
influence is the Goluhinaya Kniga, i.e., Gluhinaya:
the Mysterious book, with a translation of whicli
I conclude this sketch of the apocryphal literature.
It is one of the most widespread and most cele-
brated of Russian folk-songs, and forms the centre
of all recent inquiry into Russian folk-lore. Its
contents will sufficiently explain the interest which
attaches to it. I have selected the variant which
seems to be most complete.*

" In a land far ia the East — arose a dai'k grey cloud,

" From the dark grey cloud — fell the Golubinaj'a Kniga-—
ujxm the light-giving, lifa-giyiug Cross.

" Round this Kniga — collected forty Tzars and Tzarevitch —
forty kings and princes — with many dukes and boyards,

" Among them were five Tzars, the greatest Trars — leaj Tzar,
Vasilej Tzar — Tzar Volontoman Volon toman iteh — and the wise
Tzar David Essevitch [son of Jesse].

" Then out spake Tzar Volontoman — ' Who among he, my
brothers, is skilled in reading 1 that ho may read this Kniga
Goluhinaya — and tell ns of the white world — out of what the
white world is made — ^and of what the beauteous sun — and of
what the moon with her soft light — and of what the crowded
stars — and of what the glorious gloaming — the twilight of the
eve, the twilight of the dawnl'

• Bezsonof, Kalfiki Perchulie, L, Muboow, 1S61, No. 81, p, 293 leq.

72 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TURE,

" Then stood the Tzars all silent.

" But the answer gave the wise Tzar — David Essevitch — * I,
my brothers, will speak unto you — about the Golubinaya Kniga
— John the Priest (Bogoslov) wrote it — the Prophet Isaiah
read it — for three years he read it — and yet 'twas but three
leaves.

" * I will tell you by heart what was in this writing : — the
world arose — from Christ the Tzar of heaven, — ^The beauteous
sun arose from God's bright face, — from His bosom the moon
with her soft light, — from his robe the crowded stars, — the red
sky of eve and dawn from the eyes of God.'

" Thereon bowed all the Tzars (and said) — * thou wise
Tzar — David Essevitch — tell us too — let us know — from what
we Tzars arose — from what the princes and boyards — whence
the true believers — whence the men ? '

" Answered then the wise Tzar — * We Tzars have our origin
in the head of Adam — the boyards and princes from his rib —
the peasants from his knees — from him too arose the race of
women ; — our body is out of the moist of the earth — our bones
out of stones — our blood out of the Black Sea — our thought of
the clouds.'

" Bowed the Tzars and gave their thanks — and said — * But
tell us — who is the greatest Tzar, — which town the mother of
all towns, — which church is the mother church V

** He answered — * Our wise Tzar is the greatest — because he
believed in the holy Christ — his hand is stretched over all —
over the whole inhabited world — therefore is he mightiest. —
Jerusalem is the mother of all cities — because she stands in the
centre of the world — in the midst of the famous city stands
the cathedral — the holy of holies of the Mother of God — and of
the resurrection — in this church is the tomb of Christ — ever
is incense and ladan burning there — hence is this the mother
of the churches.*

" The Tzars thanked him — and asked — * Which are the most
important— which lake,— which fish,— which bird,— and what
beast is the mightiest of all ? '

" The wise Tzar answered — * The sea 'of ocean is the mightiest

GOLUBINAYA KNIGA.

73

■ — it BTirrouiids tlie wliole earth — out of tlia sea of ocean arose
the cathedral — of the holy St. Clement. — Lake Ilmen is the
mightiest of all — not the one in Novgorod — but that one — in
the Turkish reidm — this Ilmen is near Jerusalem — and from
it rises Little Mother Jordan. — The mightiest of fishes is the
whale — for the eartli rests on three whales. — The bird strefil
(ostricb) is the mightiest of birds — it lives in the midst of the
sea— and eats and drinks after prajors-^two hours after mid-
night — tiie strefil shukea bimself— at once dawn breaks — and
all the cocks they crow.- — The mightiest of beasts ia the uni-
com^he lives on Mount Tabor — walks under the earth — and
cleans the brooks and wells — ^wherever this beast goeth — the
wells boil over — when he comes back — all beasts bow down
before him.'

"The Tzars thanked him — and asked him — '"Which mount
is the most importaat^wMch stone,— which tree, — and which
Ixerbr

" Tiie wise Tzar answered — ' The Mount Tabor is the most
important — because in it Christ was announced — before His
apostolic disciples — to whom He showed great glory. — The most
'important stone is the white Latyr-Btoae (altar-stone)— Christ
stood on it as He talked with the disciples— established tlio
Christian faith, and spread the Bible over the earth. — The
cypress is tbe greatest tree — for out of it was moulded the
I wondrous cross — on which Christ was crucified.— Willow-herb
is the greatest — as the Mother of God — was going to her son —
her tears fell on the moist earth — whence sprang the willow-

" The Tzars then bowed — and said — 'Yester mom came
two hares — from far afield — one was grey, the other white —
they tore one another — till the grey one conquered the while.
— The white one want into the bright field — the grey one into
■ the darksome wood ; — what aina will never be forgiven 1 '

" The wise Tzar answered — ' The two hares are Justice and
Injustice — they struggle with one another — Injustice conquers
Justice— Justice goes to heaven above — to Christ Lord — In-
justice came to this world — to the people — and hid herself in

74 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TURE.

the Leart — Whence unjust deeds — He that insults the Holy Ghost
— for his sin there is no repentance — ^neither in this nor in the
future world.' "

In this folk-song the whole Apocryphal literature
of the Old and New Testament is portrayed. The
variants omitted here show other well-known traits.
In all of them, however, we recognise without
hesitation the dualistic and Bogomilistic origin,
which is clearly expressed in the justice in heaven
and the injustice on earth. We recognise in it
parallels with German mythology, traces of the
Physiologus in the cosmogony, and what is more,
the saga of the San-Gr^al in the puzzling latyr-
stone, which I have translated altar-stone.

IV.

EXORCISMS AND SPELLS.

IV.

I HAVE already touched upon the translation of
the Apocrypha of the New Testament into amu-
lets, i.e., into means for producing wonders or
good health, quite apart from their legendary con-
tents.

Here we come across an important division of
general folk-lore, viz., esdrcisms and spells directed
against disease, regarded as an evil spirit. Accord-
ing to old notions, the enemy of man could be the
sole author of all sorrows. In an Old Slavonic
legend it is said that when God created Adam and
left his body on the ground before putting the soul
into it, Satanael came and put upon Ad;mi seventy
diseases. "When God bade him take them away
again, Satanael caused them to enter the body,
and told God that unless man suffered he would
never think of God. In this way man remained
troubled with pains.*

In the New Testameut many examples are given
of men possessed who were freed by Christ, and
of invalids who were healed by the Apostles. We
have, too, the invulnerability of the Apostles, as in
the story of St. Paul aud the viper. The more the

• Pj-pin. t e-i PP- '2-13-

78 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TURK.

view grew of this evil power of Satan, as it naturally
would from a dualistic standpoint, sucli as that
of the Manichaeans and other heretics, the more
must the healing powers of the saints increase.
They had to free man from the power of the arch-
enemy.

The belief in Satan and the legends relative to
the worship of the Devil under the form of a cat,
with all the orgies attributed to the heretical sects,
has been further the origin of all the tales connected
with witches and with sorcery. It lies outside of
the limits of the present inquiry to follow out this
connection, and to prove that the accusations
against the latter have not been anything else
than a transfer from the extirpated Cathars or
Bogomils or Manichaeans to the innocent victims
of fanaticism and ignorance. The witches too
worship Satan, acknowledge his power, sell their
souls for earthly benefit and might, and become
thus dreaded foes of their fellow-citizens.

The very name of Vaulderie, denoting witch-
craft, is derived from the Vauldois or Waldenses,
just as Boggard, a Northern provincial appella-
tion of a foul fiend, evidently resolves itself into
Bulgard or Bulgarian, the very common designa-
tion of the Alhigenses, whose dealing with Satan
was notoriously a general belief.* They are, like
tbeir master, the cause of every disease, and the

• Of. G. S. Faber, Valdenses, London, 1838, p. 339, No. i.

EXORCISMS.

exorcism is employed as well agaiust them and
their witchcraft as against the direct work of the
evil spirit. The parallelism between the witches
and the heretics is perfect, the one being the suc-
cessor of the other.

The belief in witchcraft can scarcely be traced
in Europe earlier than the fourteenth century, and
ranges in time also exactly with the appearance
and spread of the dualistic creed.

As soon as the belief was established that dis-
ease is the work of an evil spirit, its remedy took
a symbolic form. Certain ceremonies were adopted,
and a saint was called upon who in his lifetime
had fought against the same spirit, and had de-
feated him. First among these, of course, we must
take into account Christ Himself, to whom the
patient has resort, trusting that the illness once
healed by Him will be again cured. Then very
frequently the Holy Virgin was invoked, generally
as an interceder for the sufferer, and so the invoca-
tions go on to apostles and saints. Any one who
has looked through the German Romanus-hiichlcin,
the French Encliantemnnts (Nisard), or the English
fiuperstitious rhymes of Chalmers and Halliwell, ot
the earlier collections in Delrio [Disquidtio Magi-
carwm), will meet at every turn with such invoca-
tions and spells. They are equally numerous, if
not more so, in modern Greek, Slavonic and Rou-
manian folk-lore. Especially well known and cele-

So GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TURB.

brated is a formula of incantation against the twelve
fever-fits (Treshica). This is attributed to Popa
Jeremiah himself, the founder of Bogomilism.
They are quoted as such in the old Indices Ex-
purgatorii. There is no doubt, therefore, that the
spell is derived from the East, and I have elsewhere
proved its existence in that quarter as early as the
eighth century. It may have been of Mauichsean
origin, and probably was translated and adapted
by Popa Jeremiah himself. The spell has been
preserved up to the present day in all the lands
of East Europe, and, with certain modifications,
also among Jews and Germans. The legend runs
as follows : —

"St. Sisinie was a brave warrior. Once upon
a time the Archangel Gabriel appeared to him in a
dream, and told him to go to his sister Melintia.
She had had five children who had all been stolen
by the Devil, and was about to give birth to a sixth.
Sisinie was to pursue the demon and obtain the
children back from him,

" His sister had made for herself a marble pillar,
and had shut herself in it. When Sisinie made
himself known to her, she opened the door. But
the demon had changed himself into a millet-
seed, and came in with him under the hoof of his
horse. He steals the child and flies away. St.
Sisinie pursues him, and as he passes a willow tree,
asks it if it has seen the demon with the child*

LEGEND OP ST. SISINIE. 8i

This deceives Kim, and says No, and ia thereupon
cursed by St. Siaiuie with the curse that it shall
only blossom but bear no fruit. Then he asks a
briar, which likewise deceives him. This shall have
its head in the earth, and all men shall become
entangled in it, so that they will curse at it. At
last be asks the olive tree, which tells the truth
and receives a blessing for it.

" The saint accordingly casts his line into the
sea, and pulls out the demon, and beats him with
seventy-two fiery clubs till he shall restore the sis
children. He says he will give the ehildreu back
when the saint shall be able to give back all the
milk which he has taken from his mother's breasts.
St. Sisinie does this by aid of a miracle, and the
demon has to return aU the six children he had
stolen, and the demon promises to keep away from
every house where the prayer (or formula) of St.
Sisinie was to be found." •

The prayer or formula referred to here in the
text has freed itself and acquired an independent
existence, or, as I would prefer to assume, it existed
even before the legend. This, though attributed
to Sisynios, the immediate follower of Mani, as
chief of the Manichseaus, seems to have been derived
from an earlier Oriental tale, which became the
basis of all later formulae. I give it here in the
Roumanian form, which closely resembles the old

* Gaeter, L e,, p. 393 mj.

82 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

one. It may be observed that here, as in all the
other variants, the demon is a feminine one. The
followino: is the leo^end : —

"I, Sisoe, as I came down from the Mount of
Olives, saw the Archangel Gabriel as he met the
Avestitza wing of Satan, and seized her by the hair
and asked her where she was going. And she
answered that she was going to cheat the Holy
Virgin by her tricks, steal the new-bom chHd and
drink its blood. The Archangel asked her how
she could get into houses so as to steal the chil-
dren; and she answered that she changed her-
self into a fly or a cat, &c. But whosoever knew
her twelve (19) and a half names and wrote them
out, she could not touch. She told him these names
and they were written down."

There is a Coptic parallel to this, more or les3
identical, as well as a Greek and Slavonic one.
The fairy who steals children is called Idlith, and
is further identified with Herod ias and her twelve
daughters, as personifications of different kinds of
fever.

The vicissitudes of this belief in the Middle Ages
are too well known for me to do more than refer to
them. Everywhere vilas, elves, fairies, and similar
female beings lie in wait for children. The part they
play in the whirlwind of the German myths connects
this belief, which might appear to be very old in
Europe, with this female demon of the Oriental tales.

SPELLS. 83

The characteristic point is that this female spirit
is everywhere regarded as the cause of catalepsy
or fits. Hence the invocation to St. Sisinie as
driving these away. Then this invocation is used
as an amulet and spell. I add the translation
of one of these from the Eoumanianj in which
the Holy Virgin is taken as the healer. In the
Russian parallel the names of the twelve daugh-
ters are taken as personifications of the disease.
The Eoumanian formula is against cramp in the
night.

"There is a mighty hill — and on this hill — is a golden apple-

"Undei the golden apple tree — is a golden etooL

" On the stool who sits there )

"There sits the Mother of God— with St. Mni'ia. With
the bow in her right hand — with the cup in her left.

" She looks up and seea naught — she looks down — and sees
Mr. and Mrs. Disease.

"Messieurs Cramp anil Mesdames Cramp — Mr, Varapyre and
Mrs. Vampyre — Messieurs Wehrwolf and Mesdames Wehrwolf.
They are going to N. IT. — to drink hia blood — and to put in
him a foul heart

" The Mother of God — when she saw them — went down to
them — spoke to them and asked them — 'Where go ye — Mr.
and Mrs. Disease!' &c

" ' We go to !N. N. his blood to drink — his heart to change
to a foul one.'

" ' No ! ye shall go back— give him his blood back — restore
his own heart and leave N, N. immediately.' , . .

" Cramps of the night — cramps of the midnight — cramps of
the day — cramps wherever they are. From water — from the
wind — go out from the brain — from the light of the face — from

84 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITER A TURE.

the hearing of the ears — from his heart — from his hands and
feet — from the soles of his feet.

" Go and hide — where hlack cocks 'never crow — where men
never go — where no heast roars.

" Hide yourself there — stop there — and ^never show yourself
more.

"May N. N. remain — pure and glad — as he was made by
God — and was fated by the Mother of God.

" The spell is mine — the cure is God's."

I will now give a few more of the Old Slavon-
ian spells which are connected with holy persons.
These are especially directed against diseases from
which the saints suffered, and from which they were
freed by their inborn divine power.

Thus we have the following formula, dating from
1423, against snake-bite, under the title "Prayer
of St. Paul against Snakes," just as we had before a
similar prayer of St. Sisinie : * —

" In the name of the Father, the Son and the
Holy Ghost, I was once a persecutor, but am now
a true follower ; and I went from my dwelling-place
to Sicily, and they set light to a trunk, and a snake
came therefrom and bit my right hand and hung
from it. But I had in me the power of God, and
I shook it off into the burning fire and it was
destroyed, and I suffered no ill from the bite. I
laid myself down to sleep, then the mighty angel
Michael appeared to me and said, *Saul, Paul,
stand up and receive this writing/ and I found in

* Tihonravov, I, c, ii. p. 291.

it tlie follnwing words: — I exorcise you sixty and
a half kinds of beasts that creep on tlie eartK
in the name of God, the Creator of heaven and
ciirth, and in the name of the immovable throne.
Serpent of evil, I exorcise thee in the name of
tlie burning river which rises under the footstool
of the Saviour, and in the name of his incorporeal
angela. Thou snake of the tribe of basilisks, tlioa
four-headed snake, twelve-headed snake, variegated
snake, dragou-like snake, that art on the right side
of hell, whomsoever thou bitest thou shalt have no
power to harm, and thou must go away (with all
the twenty-four kinds). If a man has this prayer
and this curse of the true holy Apostle, and a snake
bites him, then it will die on the spot, and the man
that is bitten shall remain unharmed, to the honour
of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, now
and for all time. Amen."

Here we have then another kind of prayer like
the one above of St. Sisynios but attributed to St.
Paul, and already in form of an amulet in 1423.
Another example may be given of a " prayer against
toothache, to be carried about with one : " * —

" St. Peter once sat on a stone and wept. Christ
came to him and said, 'Peter, why weepest thou?'
Peter answered, ' Lord, my teeth pain me,' The
Lord thereupon ordered the worm in Peter's tooth
to come out of it and never more to go in again.

• Koyakorid, Priineri, p. 516.

86 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TURE.

Scarcely liad the worm come out when the pain
ceased. Then spoke Peter, * I pray you, Lord,
that when these words be written out, and a man
carries them, he shall have no toothache.' And the
Lord answered, * 'Tis well, Peter ; so may it be.' "

In the North of England we find the same
charm against toothache, in the same wording : —

" Peter was sitting on a marble stone

And Jesus passed by.
Peter said, * My Lord, my God,

How my tooth doth ache ! '
Jesus said, * Peter, art whole !

And whosoever keeps these words for my sake

Shall never have the toothache ! ' " *

Here is a third specimen, a charm against nose-
bleeding : — " Zachariah was slain in the Lord's
Temple, and his blood turned into stone. Then
stop, blood, for the Lord's servant N. N. I
exorcise thee, blood, that thou stoppest in the name
of the Saviour, and by the fear of the priests when
they perform the offices (Liturgy) at the altar." t

I might easily add other examples to these, hav-
ing their origin in the same spiritual movement.
There is always some mention of a holy person
who is invoked. The story itself, telling how the
saint was freed from his illness, becomes an amulet,
and then passes into the spoken literature of the
people. At this stage its contents are versified

* Halliwell, Nursery Rhymes, p. 29 1,
t Novakovic, L c, p. 516.

E-

with rhyme and refrain, as a means best adapted
of fixing them in the memory. This kind of pro-
cess is well known throughout the world's litera-
ture, and the most ancient literary products were
preserved in this way till they were written down
in book form. This happened with the Vedas and
with Homer, and exactly the same always happens
when anything appeals to the mind of the illiterate
people and they wish to preserve it, either from
euperatitious or aeathetie reasons.

The whole tbeme is worthy of more extended
treatment, for it shows us in documentary form
the deep influence that Christianity in its manifold
forms exercised on the thought and feeling of the
people. Perhaps much that is considered to date
from hoary antiquity, and has become the object of
a reconstructive mythology, proves, when properly
investigated from a historical standpoint, to be
very much younger. The influence of Christianity
on the people has been sadly undervalued, because "
only the higher ethical characteristics were re-
garded, and the miraculous and legendary elements,
which have the greatest attraction for the people,
were almost entirely left out of account.

•r y

V.

ROMANTIC LITERATURE.— FOURTH CRUSADE.
ALEXANDER.— TROyAN WAR.—DIGENIS.

The Slavonic nations owe to Greek literature not
only tbeir tbeological literature, but also tbeir
romances and fables. Byzantium, at tbe gateway
of tbe East, was not alone an intemiedinry for the
religious views and tbeological literature of tbe
Orient, but also of its profane aod poetical litera-
ture. Here, if anywhere, tbe traces of classical
antiquity remained. To this point flowed the litera-
ture that had taken its rise on Alexandrian soil,
and it was sought to keep alive as much as pos-
sible the memory of tbe glorious past.

One can observe in Byzantium more than else-
where preservation and care for ancient monuments,
especially when these flattered tbe national vanity,
or did not hold out against a religious or allegorical
application. We accordingly find in Byzantine
literature many legends taken from ancient epic
cycles. Tbe names of Alexander the Great and
AcbiUes, the siege of Troy and other episodes of
the ancient history, are recorded with pride and
vanity.

Not so the legends which have their roots in the
mythology of the Hellenes or the ancient Greeks.

92 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TURE.

These legends, as mucli as the romances of Tatius,
Longus, Chariton, and others, with whom the history
of modern romance is closely connected, these all
are carefully excluded. In Byzantium the theo-
logical spirit ruled with overwhelming power. Many
pages of Byzantine history are filled with the records
of spiritual and dogmatical struggles, of councils of
war, and extinction of heresies. This was not a
soil favourable for the development of joyous life
and of epic poetry. The spirit of chivalry could
never rise among the knights iu the frock of a monk,
a!Qd amongst the warriors against the tricks of
Satan.

The Greek Orient preserved, therefore, the me-
mory of bygone days, and only the romantic tales
of prominent figures of the Greek antiquity were
changed, elaborated, and widely spread, if not alto-
gether turned into a religious legend. This state
of things, however, underwent a change, as it seems,
at the close of the tenth century, when we meet a
peculiar offspring of the Greek epic muse in the
poetical account of the heroic deeds of Digenis
AJcritas, which we shall come across later on.

No doubt the Oriental poetry, especially that of
the Persians, must have been more or less known
at that time in Byzantium, and the intercourse
between the far East and the Greek empire became
a frequent one.

The fables and apologues of India appear, are

ROMANTIC LITERATURE. 93

translated and circulated, and in their footsteps
came surely also a very richly developed oral folk-
lore.

At a fixed time, and from these Oriental sources,
which we can follow step by step in their wander-
ing from nation to nation, a new form of literature
arose in the Middle Ages, the literature of novels.
These were Oriental, for the most part Indian tales,
which were collected together in one framework,
and were originally intended for didactic purposes.
They were intended to be the mirrors in which
the Eastern princes and autocrats should see them-
selves, and learn lessons of justice and mildness
in the form of tales and talks. These tales were
gradually released from their framework, and be-
gan life on their own account. They formed
most of the materials for Provencal and Southern
French poets of fabliaux, and having been early
brought to Italy, the novel received its most
artistic form at the masterly hand of Boccaccio,
Their somewhat free and sportive though attrac-
tive contents answered to the freer views of
modern life, and the Italian novels, together with
their basis, the Oriental tales, spread throughout
Europe with astonishing rapidity, giving rise every-
where to new poetic creations, English literature
itself begins with Chaucer, who drew from these
sources, and Shakespeare's genius Iiaa derived
thence the elements of some of hia immortal pro-

•-a

94 GRBEKO-SLA VONIC LITERA TURE.

ductions. The great reservoir into which this
literature was poured, and from which it was
again drawn, is the collection of tales made in
the thirteenth century, and well known under the
name of Gesta Romanorum. Into this everything
flowed ; pious legends, Indian parables, classical
myths, and Koman history were received side by
side, and allegorised in a clerical spirit.

The influence of this novel-literature on the
peoples themselves was no slight one, nor less in
importance. They received the new materials with
avidity, assimilated them to the old, and created
new forms out of the two. This was the origin of
the literature known in England by the name of
Chaphooks, as well as of a large number of fairy
tales. I must, however, refrain from entering upon
this wider field, attractive though it be, and must
limit myself to the narrower one before us.

Greece has here too played the part of an inter-
mediary between East and West. Everything that
came from India to Europe was early translated
into Greek, and with only one exception was com-
municated through the Greek,

By the side of these writings, which in their
way from the East first found a welcome in Greece
and the Balkan peninsula, we have to take into
account a stream of oral tradition which also
reached these shores. Nothing is now more pro-
bable than the supposition that oral folk-lore and

ROMANTIC LITERATURE. 95

fairy tales came by the same route, and fouud
from thence their ■way to the West. As I men-
tioned above, Beufey Las explained the communi-
cation of the fairy tales through the Mongohans,
who ruled for a long time in Russia. He suggests
that from them Indian, and especially Buddhist,
tales and stories reached the other peoples of
Europe. But we know very little of any such
connection, and the Mongolians come to Europe
as a destructive rather than as a cohesive element.
The case is quite the contrary with the Byzantines
and the Slavonic peoples, who, as we have seen,
were the introducers of an important religious
movement in the Middle Ages, which came to
the other nations not with the sword, but with
the Bible and the legends clustering around it.
We have, besides, to take into account another
point, which has hitherto been overlooked, bub
which gives another source for communication
between the East and West of Europe. I mean
the fourth critsade in the twelfth century, in
which Constantinople was captured by the Franks,
and a new Frankish empire established there.
Now the connection with their original home was
kept up, and it is wtill known tbat travellers and
soldiers are the most important element in the
spread of folk-literature. How easily, then, could
these Oriental tales, especially since they had
taken firm root in Greece, be passed on to France,

96 GREEKO^SLA VONIC LITERA TURE.

where exactly at this time the literature of fab-
liaux arose. These fabliaux are versified novels
and stories taken from the most various sources.
Hitherto it has not always been possible to point
out their exact literary source ; this can now be
explained by the fact that many had been trans-
planted from the new Frankish empire in Byzan-
tium to the home in the West.

A future comparison of fairy tales in Europe
would probably show that those gathered in the
Balkan peninsula and in the neighbouring countries
are the more primitive and less elaborate, if those
tales are of real Oriental origin.

The question of the origin of fairy tales, and
especially of the European, is much too delicate and
controversial to allow me more than to mention it
here. I must pass on, and turn to the romances,
of which some found their way into Slavonic litera-
ture, and obtained a wide circulation.

Many of these Greek romances were hitherto only
known in a Russian form till later investigations
established the real fact that almost all these tales,
as well as the Church legends, had been brought to
the North from the South, where they had been
previously translated. In the first place, among
these is the romance of a hero who was in early
times surrounded by sagas and legends, and whose
knightly deeds, bold adventures, and early death
have moved all nations from India to Ireland, and

LEGEND OF ALEXANDER. g?

formed for all of them an object of the greatest
interest, and even become their pride, so far aa they
could bring their own history in connection there-
with. Even at the present day the name of Alex-
ander the Great lives on in undiminished splendour,
and many a legend ia still being connected with
him. No story has gone through so many adap-
tations and ornamentations as the "Life of Alex-
ander the Great," falsely attributed to Callis-
thenes. Each nation has changed it according to
its desires, and adapted it to its own views and
■wishes. The legend of Alexander accordingly
affords one of the most inatructive examples of the
influence of written on oral literature, and of the
reaction of the latter on written literature. In con-
nection with the Alexander saga we can prove
the origin of many medigeval beliefs, especially
geographical and ethnical ones, which from the book
found their way among the people. We can also
see how, in its manifold wanderings among dif-
ferent peoples, it has adopted native elements, and
was handed on, enriched by tliem. An accurate
comparison of all the versions would doubtless
show us the artistic peculiarities of each people.
Among these versions are the less known Slavonic
and Roumanian versions. These connect them-
selves more with the Byzantine forms, which are
of later date, and expanded by many marvellous
episodes. At the same time they have a definite

98 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TURB.

religious colouring, peculiar to the country and the
time. For while in the West, Alexander serves as
a brilliant example of a knight, in the East he is
a believer in the Lord Sabaoth, and figures as a
champion of the true faith against the infidels.
He goes to Jerusalem, and there recognises the
true God. So, too, Alexander burns the temple of
the idols in Persia, and says, " If they were truly
gods, they would be able to show their power and
save themselves," — that is, he speaks and acts like
a Christian saint.

Incidentally it may be remarked, that in thig
story a fact of importance for Zoroastrian literature
has been preserved ; for in this fire, as all Parsees
believe, the old books of Zarathustra were destroyed.
The legend of Alexander meets us in the Sla-
vonic versions in a double form, viz., as an inde-
pendent story, and as forming part of Chronicles.
In the Slavonic translations of Malala and Hamar-
tolos, the Alexander saga had been introduced
as early as the thirteenth century, unless we are
to assume that it already existed in the Greek
originals, from which the Slavonic texts were de-
rived. The independent form is probably of not
much later date. The extent of the story is too
great for me to give any selections from it. I
will only refer to the most striking incidents, and
those which exercised the greatest influence on
the popular fancy.

LEGEND OF ALEXXNt>ER, gg

" Alesander is, of course, the son ojjllekfcanebus,
the king of Egypt ; he is educated bj^. -Aristotle
and tames Ducipal {i.e., Bucephalus). Aft^r'the
death of Philip he becomes king of Macedoojiii'j. _
He defeats tbe Tartars and their king Atalmi'sfn':-
He then goes to Home, where he receives some '
marvellous gifts, as, for example, Solomon's mantle
adorned with snakes' eyes, and three jewels which
had twelve properties, and could heal all diseases.
He then goes through the wilderness, and sees
marvellous beings, with men's faces and snakes'
bodies (Gorgons). The war with Darius is then
related, aud how he hemmed in the wild nations
between the mountains ; aud then are described
in full the wonders he saw in the wilderness, men
with dog's heads, with one foot, others with one
eye, wonderful ants that eat up men ; further, the
pigmies who war with the storks. Then he reaches
the ' Macarian ' Isles (of the blessed), where he
holds a conversation with the Rahmans and their
king Ivant. From him he receives a flask with
the water of life ; this is, however, aU druuk up by
his slaves, who are now elves that live for ever.

" He then undertakes a journey to Paradise, but
cannot reach it, and returns. He comes across the
aun-tree, which prophesies his early death. He is
then led down to hell, and sees there sinners and
their tears, among them Darius. He dies poisoned
by Levkadiosh. *

loo GREpliOr^LA VONIC LITERA TURE,

Almostyfircll trait of these complicated contents
recurs -m./popular literature. The description of
the bonders of India was a favourite chapbook
^ in\ii!e West. A part of zoological mythology is
••.'derived from this. In it all the legends about
•GrjphoDs and Arimaspians, and similar monsters
known to classical antiquity, found a place and
thence spread farther. The conversation with the
Eahmans occurs again in popular riddles, and many
superstitious practices and beliefs connect them-
selves with the Brahmany who dwell in the East,
and for whose happiness care is taken. The well-
known legend of St. Christopher Cynocephalos is.
also connected with this cycle of sagas. Thus the
manifold influence of the Alexander saga, which is
even to-day a folk-book, is sufficiently clear.* Sir
John Mandeville also tells the story of the en-
closure of the nations, and has many other wonder-
ful facts which are derived from the Alexander
saga. I might, indeed, have often referred in the
course of these lectures to the Travels of Sir John
Mandeville, had I not feared to repeat them, for it
contains a number of the sagas we treat of.

After the Alexandreis we may pass on to a second
saga, which in ancient and mediaeval times was
considered real history, but was later regarded as
a saga, and now-a-days, through excavations, has

* Wesselofsky, Iz istorli romana i povesti i. St, Petersburg, 1886,
pp. 129-501.

TROJAN WAK. ■ :/ . - loi

been again placed in the foreground^bf.histodcal
eveuts. I refer of course to the Tf-ojccn War.
Already in ancient times Homer had been.-"sup-
planted by the fictions of Dares and Dietys. "Th'^e^
became the basis of the great work of Guido'dk."
Colonna, which, in its turn, became the armoury-'
for all the medlEeval representations in prose and
poetry. Of the numerous adaptations I need refer
here only to that trauslated and printed by Caxtou,
"Eecuyell of the Historyes of Troye," the first
printed book in English.

The lively interest taken by European peoples
in the Trojan legend may be explained by their
desire to bring their own history into connectioii
with that of the Trojans, and to refer back their
genealogy to as ancient a date aa possible. Almost
all the ruling families of the Middle Ages go back
to Troy and ^ueas. Thus, in Gregory of Tours,
Fredegar, in the German Kaiser-C/ironik, Jornan-
des, the Edda even, traces back the Danes to the
Trojans. Finally, the English kings are directly
connected with Troy through JBnit.

In the South Slavonic literature we first meet
with the Trojan legend in the chroniclers, but we
find also that it existed separately. The latter
treatment has only recently been met with in a
MS. of the beginning of the sixteenth century,
now at Bucharest. The treatment is quite short,
and it ia remarkably interesting owing to ita

. : I

' m

• •• •

I02 GRE^KC^SX^A VONIC LITERA TURE.

• • • •

modifications vand insertion of heteroo:eneous ele-
ments. ;"-.I*/toay venture to give it here in an
abridged Torm :—
i /'*,y. There was in the East a mighty city at the
•*, 'place Skamander ; it had fifty-six gates, out of which
• seventy standard-bearers could march abreast. The
city was named Troada. In it was a mighty king
named Amor. He had once a terrible dream, and
was much terrified thereat : his queen bore him
a burning torch which set the city on fire and
burnt it up. Soon after this the queen gave birth
to a girl. When she was six months old she was
placed in a tower with dumb hand-maidens. There
she grew up, and as she turned every morn to the
sun, she learnt a language composed of all tongues.
All wondered at this, and her father caused men
from all quarters of the world to come to her and
listen, and he wrote down the words that each
understood. Then they combined all the words
together, and the king found that his dream referred
to the son who was shortly about to be bom.
"When he was born, the king caused him to be
exposed on a lonely mountain. He was there
brought up by a she-bear : after three years she
was killed by hunters, and the child brought to
the king. He recognised his (grand) son. He sets
his daughter free, giving her the name Magdona,
while he calls the boy Alexander, i.e., in Greek, the
found (Ohretenu). Magdona paints the picture of

TROJAN WAR.

103

a man, and when any one asks for her hand, she
answers that she will ouly take him for her hus-
band who resembles the picture. One day she
saw a man riding through the sea, and she said to
her father, 'That is the expected husband.' He
is brought in, and it turns out that he is the king
of the Saracens, and has travelled through the
world to find the beauty whom he has seen in a
dream. Magdona ia this b^abty, and they are
married. On the other hand, Alexander finds out
from the Magi where is the most beautiful woman
in the world. When he learns that she is the wife
of King Sion, he orders the Magi to let him see
her in a dream and to cause her to see him in
the same way. TLey fall in love with one another.
After two years he clothes himself as a merchant
and travels to her with many goods. lie sees
the woman whose name is Egyluda, and appears
with her before the king, who ia astonished at
the resemblance between this woman and his wife.
Alexander flies with her, and the injured king
assembles fourteen other kings, among them King
Tog, &c., and they sail for Troas. When Alexander
and Egyluda came to Troas, the whole city moved,
and the King Amor said, 'My dream is being
fiilfiUed.' For ten years the enemy besieged
Troas without success. The King Sion had a
councillor named Palmida; he made an artificial
horse in which Bang Sion and three heroes hid

104 GREEKO-SLA VONIC LITERATURE.

themselves. A part of the army hid itself near
the city. In the morning the whole army made
a feint of going right away. They had put the
horse-shoes on the horse pointing backwards. At
Alexander's command the horse is brought into
the city. The heroes come out of it ; the others
with Palmida follow, aud the city is destroyed.
Alexander flies to his brother-in-law, and rouses
him against the Canaanite princes and Tog, who
had marched against him. The Sultan takes their
lands, and since that time they belong to the
Saracens. The servants of King Sion had run off
' with the wives of the soldiers. A reconciliation
is effected between Alexander and Sion, but the
servants fight against their lords and destroy one
another. King Sion falls and the city of Jeru-
salem is destroyed. Alexander then sees what
trouble one woman can bring into the world : he
cuts off her head and throws himself into the sea." *
Here we have the influence of the leo^end of
Solomon and Kitovras in the abduction, not to
speak of smaller details which have so changed the
legend of Troy. The other form of this legend is
based on that of Dictys, included in the Chronicle
of Malala. The legend together with the Chronicle
was translated probably in the tenth century.
Between the two there is still existing an inter-
mediate form of the legend of Troy, preserved in

* Syrku, in Archiv f. Slav. Philologie, vil pp. 81-87.

^ttie translation of Manasses' Chronicle ; this enables
us to watch the transition between the two.*

The Middle Greek epic of Digenis has quite the
character of a romance of chivalry, in which the
knight seeks for adventureSj undergoes danger, and
wins his lady-love after many hard tasks and con-
tests. The Slavonic translation of this was known
long before the Greek text was recovered and edited.
Eecent investigations have not alone proved the
great age of this version, but have shown tlie in-
fluence it exercised on the epic songs of Russia,
Many Byline, as these songs are termed in Russia,
are derived from the " Adventures of the Invincible
Devgenie." We may go a step farther, and in
popular tales and in Slavonic fairy tales again re-
cognise this romance. Its contents may shortly be
put as follows : — "A Saracen or Arabic Emir loves
the daughter of a pious widow of royal descent
who lives in Greece. He collects an army, invades
Greece, and steals tlie girl. She has three brothers,
and her mother sends them in pursuit of the Emir,
and orders them not to return without their sister,
or they may lose their heads. They fly like a
hawk with golden wings and reach the borders of
Arabia, where they kill 3000 guards, who attacked
them from three sides. By this means they reach
the Emir, who allows them to decide by lot which
of them shall fight with him. Thrice does the lot

* Pypin, Oierkn, p. 54 <().

io6 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TURE.

fall on the youngest, and he fights with and con-
quers the Emir. The latter promises to be baptized
from love of their sister. The brothers then ask
the sister how he had treated her. She had been
covered with jewels, and her face was veiled and
had been well guarded, and she says he only saw
her once at a distance in thirty days. They all go
together to Greece, and the Emir becomes a Chris-
tian and marries her. The mother of the Emir is
vexed at this, and she sends three Saracens to bring
him back. She gives them three horses, Wind,
Thunder, and Lightning. When they ride on
Wind, they would be invisible in Greece. When
they ride on Thunder, they would be heard through-
out Arabia when they came back. When they
ride on Lightning, they would be invisible to all.
They come to Greece and hide themselves. The
Emir's wife has a wonderful dream ; from this the
Emir learns about the three Saracens. These are
fetched from their hiding-place and are converted
to Christianity. The three horses are given to the
three brothers-in-law."

*^ After some time a child is born to the Emir,
who receives the names Devgenij and Ahritds.
He grows quickly and becomes a perfect hero by
his fourteenth year. He tears into pieces an elk
and a bear, and kills a monster with four heads
near a marvellous brook. He is, in short, the true
hero of the romance, the previous incidents only

DIGENIS.

107

serving aa an introduction to hia adventures, which
form tlie chief contents of the book. We are told
of his fights with Persians and Saracens, quite after
the manner of knights, recalling in tone and colour
in a remarkable way the Shak-nameh of Firdusi.
Of especial interest are two episodes, because they
afford us parallels to the heroic tales of the North,
and have, it would seem, strongly influenced certain
Eussian Byline or epic songs ; as, for example, the
songs of Dobryna and Nastasia, &c. These episodes
run as follows : —

Digenis fights with Filip-papa {in Greek Pkilio-
pappos), one of the greatest of heroes, and then
with his daughter Maximiana, whom he conquers.
Filip-papa thereupon says to Digeais that there
is a much greater hero than he is, and that is
Stratig, with his four sons and daughter, who ia
an Amazon, and had hitherto been unconquered.
Digenis goes to meet her, plays on a silver harp
with golden strings, and wins the maiden's love. He
conquers the father and the brothers, marries the
maiden, and receives rich gifts from her relations.
In this Slavonic version the characters have become
a little mised ; this can be checked by the Greek
original. The unconquered heroine is not the
daughter of Stratig, nor does he ever fight with
her, but it is Maximiana, who is an Amazon
princess. She is the counterpart of Brunhilde in
Northern mythology. Stratig's daughter, in the

to8 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TURE.

Greek Ducds, is carried off by Digenis. He is pur-
sued by her relatives ; he conquers them and then
follows a final reconciliation, as in the Slavonic*

The fame of Digenis, who is also called Aniketos
the Invincible, lives on to the present day in Greek
folk-songs. He is the type of invincible strength,
and even struggles with Charon, the modern Greek
god of death, till he is defeated by Death. In this
form he occurs in Russian and Roumanian folk-tales
about heroes who struggle with death. This story
has passed into a Russian song of Anika Voinu,
i.e., the hero Anika (from the Greek Aniketos), and
it has been pictorially represented in one of the
Russian block-books {Lubocnyja Kartinki). I have
already referred to the Apocrypha of Abraham or
the "Legend of Moses," which has influenced it,
as well as the whole cycle of similar tales to which
it belongs. These are the Greek epic romances,
which have also come into the possession of the
Slavonic peoples.

VI.

APOLOGUES AND FABLES.— BARLAAM AND
yOSAPHAT.—THE WISE AKIR AND SYN-
TIPAS.

VI.

I PASS now to the legendary biography of Buddha,
whicli, as early as the eighth century, had been
transformed into a Christian legend. The " Life of
St. Barlaam and Josaphat" was attributed to St.
John of Damascus, or another St. John, and was at
an early date translated into Slavonic. St. Josaphat
is no other than Buddha himself; he too leaves
house and home, honour and throne, to follow his
teacher, Barlaam, into 'the desert, and to lead the
life of a hermit. This determination is produced in
him by the sight of human misery on four occasions,
just as is told of Buddha. This self-sacrifice answers
exactly to the ascetic spirit of the Middle Ages and
the heretical movement, and it is no rash assumption
to attribute to it a part in the spread of this re-
ligious romance through Europe. In a previous
part I have referred to the deep impression this
episode made on the feeling of the people, and even
to the present day the soug is sung in Russia and
Roumauia which Josaphat addresses to the solitary
wood where he is about to pass his life. The spread
of this tale would be likewise encouraged by the
poetical parables which it contains ; among them I

1 1 2 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITER A TURE.

that of the three caskets of the "Merchant of
Venice." Almost equally celebrated is that of a
man flying from a unicorn, and hiding himself in a
brook, where he clings to a tree that grows there.
He sees two mice, the one white, the other black, and
they gnaw at the root of the tree, while under him
stands a dragon with open jaws. Then the man
notices a honeycomb on the tree, and he for-
gets everything whUe he eats it. The unicorn is
death, the brook the world full of evil, the tree life
gnawed away by day and night, the dragon hell,
and man forgets all this to enjoy a few drops of
earthly pleasure.

These parables were repeated times innumerable ;
every one of them has its own history, and we
often meet with them in Slavonic and Koumanian
literatures.

A second biography, though not of a saint, which
I can also trace back to the East, is the " Life of
^sop," falsely attributed to Planudes. This is
also full of marvellous tales of cleverness and wit.
Translated from Greek into Latin, these tales like-
wise find a place in world-literature. I have said
that this life is falsely attributed to Planudes, and
I support this conjecture by the fact that we pos-
sess in Slavonic literature a tale only differing from
it in a few of the biographical details, and which is
older than the epoch of Planudes. This is the
"Story of the Wise Akir, and the Sultan Sina-

THE WISE AKIR. 113

gnp, and Anadam, the nephew of Akir." There
is almost an identical agreement of this talej the
drift of which I will give, with many passages of
the " jEsop." It runs as follows : —

"In a land, Adar, lives a king, Sinagrip, He
has a wise counsellor named Akirie, who is very
rich, but has no children. He therefore adopts
his nephew, Anadam, and educates him in the
best manner. After a time be appoints him his
successor in his post, and retires. But Anadam
wanted to destroy him entirely, so that he may soon
inherit bis wealth. He therefore accuses Akirie be-
fore the king, and says he wished to dethrone him.
Akirie is taken prisoner and condemned to death.
But a friend takes his part, and bides bim fi-om the
world. When Pharaoh beard of the death of Akirie,
he sends an ambassy to Sinagrip to request that
be would send him an architect to build a city
in the air and to answer all riddles that one could
ask him. Sinagrip regrets the death of the wise
Akirie, His friend thereupon informs him that
he is alive. He is sent to Egypt under another
name. There he makes clever answers to all
riddles. In order to build the city in the air, be
binds a chest to two eagles, places a child in the
chest, and gives it a spit with flesb on it, and tells
it to bold this up. The eagles fly with the chest
into the sky. When be is up there, the child asks
for bricks and mortar, Pharaoh owns bis defeat,

1 1 4 CRBEKO-SLA VONIC LITERA TURB.

and recoguises that his visitor must be AMria
The latter returns home full of honours,
nephew is given up to him for punishment. Hefl
only reminds him every day of what he has donei
which he takes so much to heart that he dies." ^

This, shortly put, is the contents of the book, anc^
it occurs in exactly the same form in the " Life c
jEsop," with only a change in the names. The dired
source of the story of Akirie is doubtless Greek. Iti|
is curious that hitherto no Greek test has been founct
for it, and the suggestion occurs to one that thfla
Greek text has passed into the "Life of jEsop."*
This explains the disappearance of Akirie in Greek,!
and, on the other hand, the non-existence of jEsopj
in the Old Slavonic literature. The Oriental
original is preserved in the " Arabian Nights," evel
the names there corresponding. Akirie is callet
Heykar, and Sinagrip Sinharib, i.e., the Biblical
Sennacherib. The story, however, goes farthei
back, and the journey through the air and tha
riddles connect it with the Solomonic cycle ; foi
the Oriental fable tells of Solomon, how he flew
through the air, carried by a demon. Out of this
was later made a flying carpet, a flying chest, anq
even a flying horse, as we meet with them in tha
fairy tales of all parts of the world. It is also i
ported of Buddha, of Nimrod, and of Alexandw
that they flew in the air carried by eagles. Thsj

* Gaster, Lit. Pop., p. 104 leq.

gnomes which Akirie gives to hia nephew, put in
striking form like proverbs, have become popular
sayings in Russia and Eoumania.

The popularity enjoyed by Akirie in the past,
and even in the present, has prevented that of the
" Life of .^op " from becoming popular, but not
his fables, which have been translated into Slavonic.
"We need not be surprised to find that the number
and form of these fables varies greatly. Still less
need we be surprised that many of them have
become common property and occur as so-called
animal-fables, and in the form of fairy-talcs.

We may conoect with this series of Oriental tales
the important book of novels Syntipas. The
history of this book, originally Indian, and after-
wards placed by its attractive contents at the head
of the novel-literature of the Sliddle Ages, is by
itself a striking example of how such literature
spread. Early translated into Syriac, it was trans-
lated into Greek by Andreopulos in the eleventh
century. From an Arabic translation was derived
a Hebrew one, then a Latin one, and it thence
found a home in all vernaculars. But during its
travels it grew larger and larger. Tales belonging
to quite a different source were introduced into it,
and it received a different name in each country.
The oldest and favourite one is Syntipas, the name
of a sage who takes the chief part in it. In other
versiona it is called " The Book of the Seven Wise

ii6 GREEKOSLA VOSIC LITERATURE.

Masters," because seven sages appear in it. EvenJ
their number was increased, and so we get a "Book 1
of the Ten Wise Masters," and even " Of the Forty J
Veziers." Its contents may be thus abridged :

" After many years without a child, a king at last J
obtains a son. As soon as he is grown, he gives J
him to the care of the sage S>/>i(ipas, the wisestj
man in his kingdom. Many years pass and the f
prince is about to return home to his father. Thai
sage searches the stars, and finds a great danger!
threatening the prince, and that there is only one I
means of evading it, and that is that he should be I
silent for seven days. This is done, and the king;!
is in great trouble over it. The stepmother of thel
prince causes him to be brought to her, on the pre- J
test of being able to cause him to speak. There mM
then a repetition of the old episode of Joseph and!
Potiphar's wife. The queen accuses him, and seeks I
to have him killed. Then there appear seven sages, I
and each tells a tale, the moral of which Ls that &■
man should not be too hasty, for woman is not toM
be trusted. In this way the punishment is put offl
from day to day. The queen also appears eachi
day and tells on her side a story, intended to in-1
duce the king not to listen to his counsellors. Thuj
the fateful seven days pass over, and on the eighth:
appear Syntipas and the prince, who, being abln
now to speak, tells the truth." This is the frames
work story by which the others are connected, thei

number being increased and the form altered as
time goes on. This is also true of other Oriental
tales, like the "Arabian Nights," Pantchatantra, Slc.
The novel-writers of the Middle Ages followed
their example, as Boccaccio, Cinthio, Margaret of
Navarra, and Chaucer. So far as we yet know
the literature of the Southern Slavs, the book of
Syntipas, aa a book, has not been preserved in it.
The Eussian version of the sixteenth century was
derived from a Polish one which came from the
West. But a large number of the stories contained
in it have been preserved in the folk-literature of
the Southern Slavonic nations, especially in their
jest-books.

On the other hand, we possess a translation of
early date of the no less important Pantchatantra.
The history of its travels is no less interestlDg than
that of Syntipas. While the latter is more closely
connected with the novel literature, the Pantclia-
tantra is more closely connected with tales. The
investigation of this connection was, as I have
already said, a turning-point in the history of folk-
lore, with which the name of Benfey will ever be
connected.

Brought at an early date from India, the book
was first translated into Pehlevi, in the mixed
dialect of the Sasaanide epoch. From this were
made Syrian and Arabic versions, under the name
of Kalilag and Damnag, or Kalila and Dimna.

iiB GREBKO-SLAVOmC LITERATURE.

These names are derived from those of two jackala^
Karataha and Damanaka, which play a principal
rdle in the framework-story. From Arabic it wai
translated by Symeon Seth in loSo into Greek^J
and from this into Slavonic, perhaps in the twelftl*
century. Owing to a mistake about the prop
names, Seth called Kalila Stc.phanit and Dim
Uinilates, and these names also occur in thft
Slavonic translations. I cannot here of coursel
pursue the history of the Arabic version, which '
was , translated into no less than five different
languages, and thus passed into the folk-literature
of Europe. I will merely give a few examples out J
of the Slavonic translation, which, like the Greek, (
is shorter than the other versions. I will preface I
these with the remark that the book is attributed I
in Slavonic to St. John of Damascus, owing to a |
mistake about the title, because Seth was said to be j
also of Damascus.

Of a Merchant, — It is related that in a certain 1
city there was a merchant who wished to travel I
on business, and left some iron with a man as i
a pledge. When he came back, he went to the <l
man with whom he had left the iron, and saidj
to him, " Friend, give me the iron that I ie^l
with you." He answered him, "I placed yoixrj
iron in one of my cellars, and the mice hava-T
eaten it up. But do not trouble yourself about I
that, for you have come back safe and sound. I

SYNTIPAS. 119

Come to us one of these days, and we will have
a feast and rejoice over your return." The other
man agreed, and came to eat with him. After
dinner he went home with him. There he saw
the son of the man with whom he had left the
iron, seized him, carried him to his own house, and
hid him there. Coming out again, he saw the
man seeking everywhere for his son. He then
said to him, "If you are looking for your son,
(know) that I have seen an eagle carrying him
through the air." But the other turned round
and said, " Have you ever seen an eagle carrying a
man ? " But the merchant answered, " In a place
where mice eat iron, an eagle can carry a man
away." The other understood, and gave him back
his iron, on which he gave him back his son.*

Here ends the story, which recurs in innumerable
jest-books. Another story is the celebrated fable.
La Fontaine's Perette.

"There was once a poor man who had received
from a friend some butter and honey, which he
hung up in a pot. One night be thought to him-
self and said, " I'll sell this butter and honey ;
with this I'll get ten she-goats, and these will in
five months give birth to as many kids. In five
years I shall have at least 750, and so they will go
on increasing. I shall then sell them, and buy
100 oxen, with which I will plough, and from their

* A. Viktorov, Stefftnit i Ihialat, Moscov, iS8i, pp. 32-33.

120 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

produce I shall become very rich, aad build a
house four storeys high and covered with gilding,
and I'll buy several slaves and marry a wjfe..--
She shaJl bear me a son, who shall be called Pan
gel" {i.e., "in all good"), "and I'll bring him upj
as I like ; and if I find him disobedient, I'll punisln
him with this rod." At this he seized the rot
which lay near him, and, without intending it^J
struck the pot with the butter and honey and!
broke it, and the butter and honey ran away.*

As in the Greek original, the Slavonic contains'l
in addition the chapter on the king's dreams, which, J
is wanting in the Arabic version, while it stdl ezislal
in the Syrian and Tibetan versions. These aym-J
bolic dreams and their interpretations exist inde-l
pendently, with the title " The Dreams of thai
Tzar Mamer and Shahaisha." Besides these, other J
Oriental tales are included in the Slavonic MSS. ;
these, it may be conjectured, also occurred in the -I
Greek original, and were translated from it.

Having arrived at the conclusion of this short I
sketch of the Greeko-Slavonie literature, I may 1
take a short retrospect of the line of argument.
The first thing that meets us is the fact, estab-
lished by numerous examples, that we can. no \
longer consider the soul-lives of the European
peoples in the Middle Ages as independent from

* Viktorov, i.e., p. 67.

ROMANTIC LITERATURE. 121

one another. Paths lead from one nation to an-
other, along which passes a literature which exer-
cises a uniform influence ou all, the traces of
which are to be found not alone in mediaeval, but
also in modern folk-lore. It follows, further, that
the literature of the people, as we now have it,
is throughout dependent on a previous literary
period. It is from literary works that there passed
into the consciousness of the nations almoat all
legends, sagas, fairy tales, and even amulets, spells,
and other superstitious customs.

As a third result, we have seen that the common
sources out of which these have been derived are
mostly of Oriental origin, and are seldom known
in Europe before the tenth century. It is by no
means implied that the peoples of Europe had
nothing of the sort before, or that no mythologi-
cal views were prevalent in earlier times. Nature
abhors a vacuum, and so does the human mind.
But the earlier possessions must have been of poor
and unenduring quality, and few positive traces
can be shown of this early mythology. The simi-
larity of legends and customs which used to be
given as proofs for the existence of a mythology,
and that the same for all nations, will henceforth
be considered as proofs to the contrary. Not a/
little of this folk-lore can be traced back to one
and the same literary source, and we have there-
fore explained the identity of legends and customs

b

122 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

amongat different nations of Europe, not by mewifl o

any hypothetical identity of their mythology, but bw
the actual identity of their literary SiBsi^tiimJ '.
have had to confine myself to narrow limits, othei
wise many other Oriental and Christian legendi
might have been traced through all forms of folkq
literature in their subsequent changes ; at first sagi
or legend, then chronicle, kuightly adventure, an^l
fairy tale, then epic, and finally lyrical song. Re-
miniscences of these might have been found
superstitions, customs, and habits. Further, theirfl
influence on art might have been traced in ieono-j
graphy and sculpture, and many other branches.

The few examples I have adduced will havw
proved, I hope, that the folk-literature of Western
Europe is derived for the most part from the litera-
ture of the East, and especially from the Christian
and Buddhist literatures. "We have recognised
in Greeko-Slavouic literature the chief, and often
the only factor, in the communion of East and
West. Apocryphal and imaginative works, early
introduced into Greece, were brought thence into i
the Slavonic lands, and the missionaries of dualisml
thence carried to all quarters these religious tales, "
which were easily taken up and assimilated by the
people. It was also from the South-East, and pro-
bably by oral tradition, that the knights and
soldiers of the fourth crusade brought romances
of chivalry and Buddhistic fables, which must

ROMANTIC LITERATURE.' 123

have found their way with other works from

*

India through Persia and Asia Minor to Byzan-
tium and the Balkan peninsula. The veil that
has hitherto hidden the history and importance of
Slavonic and Middle Greek literature is gradually
beginning to be raised, and we obtain a new fertile
source for the critical inquiry of our time. The
connection between Western and Greeko-Slavonic
literature has been broken and their unity dis-
solved, and I shall consider myself fortunate if it
is granted to me to have restored this connection,
and to have shown, even if only on a small scale,
that all these elements worked harmoniously to-
gether in religion and poetry, fable and tale, creat-
ing a new birth of the spirit in Europe, the results
of which are to be seen in the civilisation of
to-day.

VII.

THE SLAVONIC PEOPLES IN THE BALKAN
PENINSULA.— ORIGIN OF THE SLAVONIC
LITERATURE.— CYRILL AND METHOD.

VII.

Aftee the brief sketch of Greeko-Slavonie iitera-
ture given in the preceding pages, it is absolutely
necessary that we should attempt to form some idea
of the background on which our picture was painted.
I must content myself here with the merest sketch
of the most important events which took place
in the Balkan peninsula, viz., the invasion and
settlement of the Slavonic tribes, their struggles
with the Greeks, the arrival of the Bulgarians, and
the influence exercised by them on neighbouring
peoples. "We shall then come to the conversion
of the Slavs to Christianity, the two apostles of
the Slavs, Cyrill and Method, the inventora of the
Slavonic alphabet and the founders of Slavonic
literature.

Probably no country in Europe, with the excep-
tion of the neighbouring Eoumania, has been the
scene of so many invasions and raids as the Balkan
peninsula. It was the first stage reached by the
Aryans as they crossed over from Asia, at first the
mysterious Pelasgians, then the Hellenes, who sup-
planted them, then the Thracians in the north,
with their numerous tribes and divisions. If the

128 GREEKO-SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

Albanians, as is generally assumed, are descender
from the Thracians, then these last two peoplef
the Hellenes and Thracians, have kept their hoi
on the Balkan peninsula to the present day.

Innumerable are the names of the more receq
peoples who have passed through the peninsula
from the Gauls to the Romans, Goths,
Avars, Petchenegs, and Cumans. I merely mentid
these names and pass at once to the Slavs, wl^i
more nearly interest us. Nor will I go into 1
question of the original home of the Slavs. Suffice
it to remark, that the Bulgarians and Servians of
to-day were originally identical with the Slovenes
in Pannonia, and that they wandered from ther^
in the course of many centuries into Moeaia, whid
had been laid waste and depopulated by the hordefl
traversing it. At last, in the fifth century, thei
became powerful enough to undertake expeditionj
on their own account against the Byzantine empii
Many investigators place the Slovenes in Eouma;
about this time, basing their conclusions on th«
Slavonic place-names. Some have gone so far as t
call the ancient Dacians Slavs, Critical investigag
tion brings to light the fact that these Slavonic plaw
names are of comparatively recent date, and bei
trace of specific sounds which belong to a late perio(
of the Slavonic language, when this began to split ug
into dialects and came under Bulgarian influence. J

The Slavonic population of the Balkan peninsTji

THE BULGARIANS.

' power of cohesion, just aa that of
Russia failed to show any in the early period. Its
organisation is that of the clan, each clan being
settled in a separate hamlet, with its hnez at its head.
This word, which in Slavonic, and thence in Rou-
manian, means leader or chief, is of peculiar interest,
as it is borrowed from the Goths, among whom the
■word appears as kuni. The English word hmg is
absolutely identical with it, coming through the
0. H. G. cunic, A.-S. cuning. It is further well
known that in consequence of the Arian movement
Bishop Ulfilas, the translator of the Bible into
Gothic, led part of his people across the Danube
and settled in McEsia, and it is from this quarter
that the Slavs, who arrived there later, took this
name. This may serve us as an index to settle
the date of the invasion and settlement of the
Slavs in the Balkan peninsula. This must have
been consummated about 670 A. D. Even earlier than
this Byzantine chroniclers mention struggles with
the Sklavinoi. Thus Constantine II. led an ex-
pedition against the people of the land called
Sklavinia in 657 a.d., and conquered them.

A turning-point in the political life of the
Southern Slavs is formed by the invasion of the
Fifino-Tartar nation of the Bulgarians, who came,
under the guidance of Isperich, in 679 a.d. from
the north through the present Dohrugea to Mcesia,
Like the German Varsegians in Russia, they col-

1 30 GREEKO-SLA VONIC LITERA TURE,

lected their scattered clans and united them into
one nation, to which they gave their name, tinlike
the VaraBgians, whose name disappeared.*

The few relics of the Bulgarian language which
still remain — mostly consisting of proper names
— do not permit us at present to determine exactly
their ethnological character. The most recent
hypothesis is that they are related to the Tcht^
vobshians, whose descendants, it is probable, are
the present Tartars at Kazan. The name Buigar
has been connected with that of the river Volgd.
They certainly belong to the great family of
Turkish peoples who ruled in South Eussia for
centuries, and of whom the Chazars are the best
known. They did not come, however, alone, but
with them came also Finnish tribes, absorbed after-
wards into one nation, t

Contemporary writers have given us a few details
about, their customs, which confirm this guess.
I will merely mention their burial customs. Aft
soon as a great man died, he was laid out in a
mortuary in which were also shut up his favourite
wife and his slaves. They occur most frequently
in South Russia, and in Roumania. As regards
this point Bulgaria is still a terra incognita.

The number of these conquerors cannot have
been inconsiderable, as it took two or more centu-

* Cf. Jirecek, C. T. Geschichte der Bulgaren Prag, 1876, p. 126 seq,
t Miklosich, in Miscellanea di Filolologia e Linguistica Florence, 18S6,
pp. 1-4.

THE BULGARIANS.

ries before the Bulgarian language died away, aud
conquerors and eouquered were remodelled into a
new people. This period is filled with mighty
struggles whicli roused the Byzantine empire, as
under Krum, Bona, Oriuortag, &c. The power of
the Bulgarians spread over almost the whole of
the Balkan peninsula ; all its inhabitants were sub-
dued. By the side of Greeks and Slovenes, and
older than tho latter, there was a Boman popula-
tion throughout the Middle Ages known by the
name of Wallachians, and destined to play an im-
portant rdle in the history of Bulgaria. Besides
these there were the Albanians, and likewise scat-
tered remnants of other peoples like the Goths and
Avars, who had settled there. Over all these the
power of the Bulgarians spread, and yet it is
generally assumed that no trace of their influence
remains. I call attentioa to this point, as the view
I have to bring forward contradicts all these theories,
If we observe the languages of the Balkan pen-
insula as they appear before us to-day, they all
betray a surprising similarity in their grammatical
formation. This is especially the case, as it is im-
portant to notice, in their inflexions, a point in
which every language shows itself, as is well
known, remarkably sensitive, and only loses them
under some striking influence of another language.
English is bo prominent an example of this fact,
that I need only refer to this point.

1 32 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITERA TV RE.

Now Albanian, Eoumanian, Neo-Greek, and Bul-
garian, as well as Servian in part, offer us such
identical phenomena, that the influence which
has produced this change in all four languages
must, under every circumstance, have been simtd'
taneous. This consideration excludes any Thracian
influence, which was first assumed by Thunmann
and Kopitar, and is now generally accepted. Ac-
cording to this theory, the Eoumanians, Greeks,
and Bulgarians, through intermixture with the
indigenous Thracian population, lost many of their
grammatical inflexions. As a proof of this, it is
urged that the Albanian, which represents the old
Thracian, presents the same phenomena. But
much has been overlooked which renders this view
impossible, as I believe ; for between the influ-
ence of the Dacians, who are supposed to be
identical with the Thracians, on the Eoumanians,
and the same on the Slavs, intervene at least
several centuries. It is not to be assumed that
a language could have remained unchanged for
many centuries, and should have produced exactly
the same linguistic results on a quite different
medium, in one case Slavonian and in the other
Latin. For the moment I will not press the
point that at the time of the Slavonic invasion
only Eoman colonies in Moesia and descendants
of Goths are referred to, whereas there is not the
slightest reference to any Thracian population,

THE LANGUAGES OF BALKAN PENINSULA. 133

though this must have been very numerous, to
judge from the influence assumed. Of far greater
importance is the difficulty offered by Albanian.
To the present day no one has succeeded in de-
finitely settling the linguistic characteristics- of
this language. By the side of the Thraciau theory
there exists also a Greek theory, which recognises
in Albanian an archaic (Pelasgian) form of Greek.
I need not discuss such an hypothesis farther. The
point of interest is the grammatical similarity
with the other tongues. The philosophy of lan-
guage does not permit us to regard this as the
original type after which the remaining languages
have formed themselves. Phenomena such as those
before us only occur as the result of a conflict, of
a struggle between the two languages, in which
both suff'er losses, and become elevated into a third
language having a higher unity. We must, there-
fore, regard these forms in Albanian as late. It
would be otherwise inexplicable how a form should
have been preserved in Albanian which in the
other languages is undoubtedly of later formation.
Finally, if we pass to Modern Greek, we find the
same objection against a Thracian origin which
we adduced when speaking of Bulgarian, viz., that
there was never so numerous a Thracian population
as could transform Greek in so essential a manner.
In addition to all these points we have to take
into account the fact, which comes out irrepressibly

1 34 GREEKO-SLA VONIC LITERA TUBE.

in an analytical investigation of, for example, the
Boumanian language; this is, that these changes
must have taken place at a late period — at a
period when the Latin language had already been
transformed into the Eoumanian; in particular,
after the end of the change of consonants, but
before the determination of the inflexions. If we
assume that this transformation of Slavonic into
Bulgarian, and of Greek into Modem Greek is of
late date, we are necessarily obliged to assume
some thoroughgoing simultaneous influence spread-
ing over the whole Balkan peninsula between the
seventh and the tenth century, and transforming
all the tongues there and then in existence in pre-
cisely the sa/me way.

But there is no other nation to whom we can
ascribe this change but that of the Bulgarians,
which made its appearance in so striking a manner
about this time, establishing a kingdom which
flourished for centuries. The number of the Bul-
garians could not have been inconsiderable, as one
can perceive if one thinks of the numerous popula-
tions whom they ruled. Besides, they managed to
keep alive their language about more than two
centuries, although in a continuous struggle with
other peoples and languages ; and though it passed
over into these, yet not, as was previously thought,
without leaving deep traces on them.

CONVERSION OF THE BULGARIANS. 13J

The next important factor waa the acceptance of
Christianity, which had a most extensive influence
on the development of the Slavonic peoples ; for
"by the side of their faith, and in consequence of
their faith, there grow up for them a literature and
progress.

In course of time the whole of Western Europe
had been converted to Christianity ; even the Slavic
tribes in Moravia, Pannonia, and Croatia had been
baptized. Threatened by Christian Byzantium in
the south, Boris, Prince of the Bulgars, saw him-
self surrounded on all sides by Christians, and, to
relieve himself from the threatening danger and
to ensure his political security, he determined to
proceed to Byzantium and to accept Christianity.

Accordingly, about the year 864-865, he was
baptized at Constantinople, and received the name
of Michael. It was only after a long hesitation
between Rome and Constantinople that he decided
in favour of the latter, and received thence the first
■ Bulgarian bishop, by name Joseph. Boris-Michael
withdrew in old age iuto a monastery, and after his
death became the first Bulgarian saint. The news
of the conversion of the Bulgarian ruler and of part
of his people soon spread, and attracted missionaries
desirous of winning over a people who had shown
themselves ready to give up their old faith. I may
mention specially the Pauliciana or Manichieans,
who came about this time into Bulgai-ia, and also

136 GREEKO'SLAVONIC LITERATURE.

the Jews, who had likewise converted the Chazars
to Judaism. I draw particular attention to these
two factors, as they were of great importance in
the spiritual and literary movements of the follow-
ing centuries.

The Bulgarian power reached its culmination
under Boris's successor. Tzar Samuel (893-927).
The whole peninsula was in his hands, and he
called himself Tzar i Samoderzetz Bulgaramu
i Grekamu, i.e., Tzar (Caesar) and independent
ruler of Bulgarians and Greeks. His time, and
that of his successor Peter, is likewise the golden
age of Slavonic literature, which had now found a
true home and reached its highest limit. The seed
which the apostles of the Slavonians had sown in
the West rose, strange to say, in the East. At this
point, then, I will follow out in a few words the
careers and activity of the apostles of the Slavs.

Constandin was born in 827 a.d., of a distin-
guished family, probably in Thessalonica : it is not
known whether he was of Slavonic origin. He
was sent to Constantinople, and brought up at the
Imperial Court. His remarkable knowledge of
languages was peculiarly noticeable, especially of
Oriental languages. But I will not enter into the
details of his biography, contenting myself with
the chief points. He early became a monk, and
received the name of Cyril. In this character he
travelled among the Chazars, whom he is said in a

CYRIL AND METHOD. 137

legend to have converted to Christianity. His
younger brother, Methodius, who had at first held
some official post, but afterwards also became a
monk in the monastery at Olympus, accompanied
him in his journey to the Chazars.

In the year 862 a.d. they were both dispatched
by the Emperor, Michael III., to Katislav, in
Moravia, where they proceeded to develop their
literary labours. They first translated the Gospel
and the Liturgy into Slavonic. All difficulties
which lay in their path they were enabled to
overcome by aid of the Pope ; for Cyril jour-
neyed to Rome, and the Slavic Mass was thrice
repeated in the churches of Rome, with the per-
mission of the Pope, Cyril died in the year 869
A.D. Methodius henceforth continued by himself
the work which he and Cyril had begun. The Pope
revived the long-disused Bishopric of Pannonia,
and appointed Methodius to this See. He was
also specially favoured by Prince Kocel, who re-
sided at Blatna (nowadays L. Platten). In 885 a.d.
Methodius died at Velegrad, then the capital of
Bohemia. Two years ago pilgrimages to his grave,
on the thousandth anniversary of his death, were
performed by all the Slavonic nations.

Scarcely had Methodius closed his eyes in death
when persecution on the part of the German
bishops, started already in his lifetime, was re-
newed with greater force. The numerous disciples

1 38 GREBKO'SLA VONIQ LITER A TURE.

whom Methodius had collected around him fled to
Bulgaria, and brought with them the Slavonic
alphabet. Up to a very recent time the so-called
Cyrillian alphabet was regarded as the genuine work
of the Apostle Cyril. But many texts were found
written in au entirely different character, termed
Glagolitza, and this was studied first by Kopitar,
then by Schafarik, Miklosich, and Jagic, and, mostly
on philological grounds, was declared to be the true
Cyrillian alphabet, the so-called Cyrillian being of
later date. The chief proof of this position — and it
was more and more confirmed as time went on by
the discovery of new texts — was that the texts
written in this character came nearest to the lan-
guage in which Cyril worked, viz., the Pannonian,
now termed Old Slavonic. They were, besides, the
oldest relics of the language, some of them not
a hundred years later than Cyril. The most im-
portant evidence of all was that Cyrillian palimp-
sests were invariably written over Glagolitic texts,
A Cyrillian text is, in such cases, invariably written
over a Glagolitic one that had been erased, and
never vice versd. This proves incontestably that
the Cyrillian is later than the Glagolitic. The
most important Glagolitic texts are Clozianus (edit.
Kopitar), Codex Zographos (Athos, ed. Jagic),
and the Codex Assemani (at Rome), and others.

Not a few attempts have been made to explain
the origin of this curious alphabet. The difficulties

THE SLAVONIC ALPHABETS.

are many. In the first place, the remarkable form
of the letters ; then their no less remarkable names,
which are completely unsystematic, and, when trans-
lated, become unintelligible. All kinds of sug-
gestions have been made, none of which have led
to positive results. Some have thought of the
Runes (Hanush), others of the Gothic alphabet of
Ulfilas (Schafarik), others again of the Greek Tahy-
graphs (Taylor), and, finally, resort has been had
to the idea of a peculiar and prototypal (Greeko-
Latiu) Albanian alphabet (Geitler) ; but none of
these explain either the names and arrangement
of the letters, or even their form.

I may venture to suggest what I believe to be a
new solution, which seems to me to remove the
greatest difficulties, and carries with it no inherent
improbability. As I have remarked above, the
literary labours of the brothers Cyril and Methodius
began after their return from the Cliazars, where
they, according to legend, held disputations with
Jews, Mohammedans, and Schismatics, i.e., Mani-
chEeans. The last were, without doubt, Armenians,
as these were at that time the chief representatives
of ManichEean ideas, and sent out missionaries in
all directions.

How easily might Cyril have adopted this Arme-
nian or a similar alphabet, when it became known
to him among the Chazars, as most suitable for his
purpose, and have adapted it to express the Slavonic

1 40 GREEKO-SLA VONIC LITERA TURE.

sounds ? That this must have been really the case
is proved by the similarity of the Glogolitza with
Armenian and Georgian, if we disregard, as is only
natural, a few modifications which have taken place
in the former. The other so-called Cyrillian was
probably compiled by Clement, one of Cyril's dis-
ciples in Bulgaria. He took the Greek uncials as
a foundation, because they were then better known,
and took the characters still wanting, from the
Glogolitic. Clement was later Bishop of Velica,
and died 916 a.d. This is the origin of this
alphabet, which drove the other from the field and
usurped its name ; and in this manner was the
foundation laid for a Slavonic literature, with which
we have now to deal. Further details are to be
found in the Appendix B.

The chief representatives of this literature are the
so-called Seven Saints, viz., Cyril and Methodius
themselves, and their five immediate disciples, Cle-
ment, Gorazd, Angelar, Naum, and Sava, to whom
for the most part the ecclesiastical literature owes
its Slavonic form. They translated the Bible, the ^
Liturgy, " Legends of the Saints," Synaxaria, as
they were called ; homilies, among which the Zlato-
strujy or "Golden Stream," deserves to be mentioned,
as it was attributed to Tzar Samuel, and contains a
collection of more than 100 (? 105) homilies of St.
Chrysostom (Slav. Zlatoust). Under his auspices
the Byzantine chronicles of Malalas and Gregorios

THE SEVEN SAINTS. 141

Hamartolos (Slav. Greshnyj) were translated, and
the great Slavonic eneyelopasdia arose termed
Izbornik, or " Collection of a!l the Important
Knowledge of the Time." In imitation of the
Hcxaemeron of Basil, Joanes, the Exarch, compUeJ
a similar compilation of theological, philosophical,
and scientific views on cosmogony, conoeetiug them
with the first chapter of Genesis. The book is
known under the name of Shestodnev, i.e., " Hexa-
emeron on the Six Days," &c.

The impulse once given, continued through the
centuries, even through the two centuries during
which Bulgaria had ceased to exist, and was entirely
joined to Byzantium. It continued later under the
Asenides, who again made Bulgaria independent,
till it fell under the power of the Turks. Tzar
Samuel had often beaten the Greeks, and came near
taking Constantinople ; but after his death a political
decline succeeded, though the progress of thought,
on the other hand, went on increasing. Under the
infiuence of Tzar Peter {927-968 A.D.) a rich diver-
sity of spiritual life was shown. The state was
often disturbed by the Greeks, and in 971 East
Bulgaria was conquered by Emperor John Zimiski,
Basil II. frequently beat Tzar Samuel, grandson of
Symeon, and likewise his successor, John Vladislav,
who met his death in the battle of Durazzo in i o 1 8.
In the same year Bulgaria became a Byzantine pro-
vince, to rebel again, and fall afterwards into the

1 42 GREEKO'SLA VONIC LITER A TURE.

hands of the Turks until the liberating war of
1878.

The Slavonic literature became meanwhile the
literature of the orthodox peoples of the South-
West of Europe, and especially of the Slavonic
nations. Naturally in the MSS. peculiarities of the
special languages have crept in, which enable us to
determiue the home of each at a glance. I will
only mention one of these peculiarities, though that
is a specially important one. The nasal vowels
jt, €, are replaced by one or other of the remain-
ing vowels when the MS. is not written in Bulgaria.

During recent centuries the chief place of refuge
for this literature, as well as its chief place of cul-
tivation, have been the monasteries on Mount Athos.
To the present day many a precious MS. is pre-
served there, and from there most of the best MSS.
to be found in Russia derive their origin. Thus
the celebrated *' Zographos Gospel," now in Moscow,
once belonged to the Zographos Monastery on Mount
Athos. The connection with Roumania and Russia
has never ceased. Many of the most important
monasteries are foundations of the Roumanian
princes. The important position that Mount Athos
holds for Greek literature is well known to all con-
cerned with the subject, nor can it be said that the
whole matter has been as yet thoroughly inves-
tigated. Still less can we say that we have a
complete control over the whole of old Bulgarian

THE SLAVONIC LITERATURE, 143

literature. Slavonic MSS. are to be found scattered
throughout all the libraries of Europe, and in many
monasteries of Bulgaria itself, of Roumania, and of
Russia, which have not yet been explored. But
what we have in hand is sufficient to enable us to
settle its extent, and determine its characteristics
with some amount of precision.

APPENDIX.

APPENDIX A.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE.

In close connection with the history of the Bible
proper, of its translation, and of the influence it
exercised, especially during the Middle Ages, is the
history of the so-called Bible HistoriaIe,\iz., the his-
torical part of the Bible, enriched and embellished
by legendary and exegetical means, to serve at the
same time homUetical and edifying purposes.

There is, however, notwithstanding its great
importance, no special study which, as far as I
know, endeavours to fill the gap of our knowledge
in this respect, to trace the development of the
Bible Historiale through the literatures of Europe,
and to discover its probable origin. The following
pages claim to be no more than an attempt to
gather scattered elements and to bring this literary
problem under a new light, furnished by the
Oriental, and especially by the Slavonic literature
with which we are dealing. There is no need to
add that it is only a brief sketch, in consideration
of the literature it embraces, the wide space it
covers, and the results to which it leads.

148 APPENDIX A.

Under the name of Bible Historiale is generally
understood the Latin compilation of Pierre le
MangeuVy or Petnis Comes tor, vice-chancellor of
the University of Paris in the thirteenth century,
; termed by himself Historia Scholastica. Composed
about 1 1 75, it is the first compilation embracing
the entire contents of the Old and New Testament.
At short intervals there are also introduced special
chapters referring to the history of the world.
The author excluded from his work the dogmatical
and prophetical portions of the Bible, and the rest
is not rendered in a literal translation, but in a mere
paraphrase of the text. Sometimes this is shortened,
very often explanatory glosses of an exegetic or
polemical character are added. Not seldom the
author inserts legendary traits or entire legends
drawn from non- canonical sources. Almost every
episode is treated and commented in an allegorical
or spiritual way, and the author has often the oppor-
tunity of showing his profound learning, and his
deep acquaintance with the philosophical and scho-
lastical speculations of the time.

By the success this compilation shortly after-
wards acquired it seems that it perfectly suited
the taste of the time. Not long after its appear-
ance the book was translated into the vernacular
French, and it served as a basis and model for
many similar productions both in prose and verse
iu various countries.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE.

One question, however, has not even yet been
satisfactorily settled, namely, from what sources
did Comestor draw his legendary stories, and how far
ia he indebted to some other similar compilation ?

This question is the more difficult to answer, aa
hitherto under the heading of Bible Historiale
many books have been classed which bear some
resemblance to each other. A closer inquiry proves,
however, that there esisted at least two different
Bihle-histories, one of which ia the older and
genuinely popular, while the second is the Historia
Scholastica, with all its variations and translations.

A true light on this very interesting branch
of universal literature is thrown on it by the older
version, whose existence I am now endeavouring to
prove, and which I am now going to examine inde-
pendently of the other.

Before entering into this research, it is desirable .
to mention another work, the Speculum of Vin-
ceutius of Beuuvais, that unparalleled encyclopee-
dia, which comprised in one book all the different
facta and ideas then current in the Christian
"world. In the fourth division of this Miroir, Viu-
centius passes in review and relates the history of
man from Adam down to the resurrection and end
of the world. Here are also inserted a number of
legends and apocryphal narratives similar to the
previous, and a century-older Histoma Scholastica.
This too served as a source for the following period.

ISO APPENDIX A.

The question as to the origin whence these are
derived is also unsettled.

If we now compare the vernacular translations
of the Bible as they have been preserved up to
the present time, and if we include in this our
inquiry not only the prosaic and literal, but also
the versified and amplified translations extant in
France and Germany, not to speak for the moment
of the Italian, Slavonic, and other versions, and if
we add to these the "Mysteries" based upon the
versified Bible, we are inevitably compelled to affirm
for a distinct part of them an undoubted inde-
pendence from the Historia Scholastica as well
as from the Speculum. And we must further
acknowledge that they represent a different version,
richer in legends and tales, less acquainted or
blended with world-history and sophistical specula-
tions, and distinctly at variance in the allegorical
and spiritual explanations to those put forth in
the above-mentioned works. In order to explain
this hitherto unnoticed fact, we must go a step
farther, and ask when and under what circum-
stances was the Bible itself translated into the
vernacular ?

There is no doubt that, curious as it may seem,
with the exception of the Gothic translation by
Ufilas, the Slavonic translation is the oldest extant
in Europe. Above we have already traced a rough
sketch of the literary activity of the two Slavonic

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. i;i

apostles, Cyril and Methodj and laid stress upon
the importance which their translation had for the
development of the Slavonic literature, which clus-
ters round it as its natural centre.

Almost contemporaneously with this transla-
tion, that is, as early as the ninth century, and as
a consequence of it, there appears in the Slavonic
language also a Bihh Historiale, with all its
peculiar characteristics, widely circulated, and of
enormous influence upon the Church and profane
literature.

The Apocrypha of the Old Testament mentioned
and referred to in the course of these Lectures were
mostly taken from this Bible Historiale, in which
the Biblical history is interwoven with legends.

This Slavonic Bible has a peculiar value, because
it ia at least two centunes older than the corre-
sponding work in the Western literature, and especi-
ally than the Historia Scholastica, and also because
it is richer in tales and legends, which on close
inquiry prove to be of a more primitive and ori-
ginal form.

The age of this Slavonic version can be fairly
well traced, as we find reference to it in the earliest
Russian chronicle of Nestor. We further find en-
tire parts of the Paltea embedded in the Eussian
Hronographi, just as we find traces of Biblical
legends in the analogous works in the German lite-
rature, which are world-hietories, beginning with

152 APPENDIX A.

the creation of the world, and containing the whole
Biblical history, after which in these Hronographi
follows the Byzantine, and with this, lastly, is con-
nected the Russian or Slavonic history.

Tlie Byzantine literature, with the chronicles of
Malalas, Hamartolos, Syncellus, and others, and
latter on Dorotheus of Monembasia, oflfered the ma-
terial and the example for similar Slavonic works.
They were, and this at an early period, translated ;
and the chronicle of Georgius Hamartolos (Slavonic
Greshnyi) in especial forms the basis of the Hrono-
graphi. What is now an essential point is that the
Biblical history therein contained is not drawn from
the Holy Writ directly, but from the embellished
Bible, the Palcea.

The references in these Hronographi help us
also to establish the fact that from the two forms
in which the Palcea now-a-days exists as a shorter
one, and a more developed, the latter is the older
form, while the shorter represents only an epitome
of it. In the Hronographi the longer version is
generally quoted, proving thus its greater antiquity.
The difference between the two versions is by no
means essential. The text is nearly always the
same ; they vary only in the number and extent of
the legends inserted in the text. We shall meet
later on with a similar fact in the German versi-
fied Bible Historiale, of which there are also two
forms, a shorter and a longer, filled with legends.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 153

Eo also ID the Romance literatures. The Slavo-
nic PaJcea being all but absolutely uuknown, I
will endeavour to give here a brief sketch of its
contents, in order to enalde us to elucidate the
relation in which it stands to the literature with
which we are dealing. I hope, however, to have an
early opportunity of publishing an exact translation
of the legends and apocryphal tales contained there-
in, with the necessary commentary.

The Palcea, as has been said, is an embellished
Bible ; but it would be a mistake to consider it as
a work of only an exegetical character, intending
to explain the words of the text by legendary in-
terpretation. Besides this, it has also a definite
tendency ; it is apologetic and polemic, as well as
exegetic and homiletic.

The fundamental idea developed in the Palcea is
that there is no event mentioned in the New Tes-
tament which has not been adumbrated and typified
in the Old Testament. The New is only the fulfil-
ment of the prophecies and prototypes of the Old ;
hence the truth of the former, and hence, on this
theory, also the unavoidable acceptance of the New
Testament by the followers of the Old Testament.

This is the polemic argument used in the Paltsa
against Jews, and in a less prominent way against
Mohammedans, who are often addressed directly.
We find expressions like the following scattered all
over the book, as, for example : " Listen, Jew ! . . .

^ T|

154 APPENDIX A.

I ask thee, Jew ! ... ye sinful Jews ! and ye
unclean Besserman (Slavonic MusuLman). . . . Be-
hold the wonder and thank the Lord. . . • Open
your ears . . . and lift up your eyes," and so forth.

This direct attack, and the typical paraUelism
between the hope of the Old and the fulfilment in
the New Testament is a characteristic feature of
the greatest value, which I point out here, as I
shall have the opportunity later on to refer to it
frequently.

The Palcea begins, as is natural, with the descrip-
tion of the six days of the creation, and lingers
especially at the episode of the creation of the
angels, being intimately connected with the fall of
Satan. According to the PalcBa^ ten hosts of angels
were created at the first day. The leader of the
fourth group was Satanael, who rebelled against the
authority of the Lord, and was therefore cast from
heaven down into the depths of heU, together with
all his mutinous followers.

This hierarchy of angels is one of the most im-
portant events of creation, and the Palcea accord-
ingly deals with it at some length. We have therein
the accurate and minute description of the angels'
rank and dignities, also which elements of nature
are ruled by special angels. So there are enumer-
ated the angels of snow, rain, hail, &c., as they are
to be found in the heavenly hierarchy of Dionysius
Areopagita and its sources.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 355

Abounding with particular incidents, and very
amply elaborated, is the description of the raagni-
fied works created during each day, just as is the
case in the so-called Hexaeraera, and in the com-
mentaries on Genesis of the oldest fathers of the
Church. Among other tales, they are full of legends
of animals drawn from the Physiologus, and other
similar productions.

A large space is furfclior devoted to the creation
of men, and the entire drama the centre of which
is Adam. It deals with the life in Paradise, the
tree of knowledge, the creation of Eve, the various
experiences Adam and Eve go through till their
ejection from Paradise; and the legendary story
goes on till their death; telling us, at the same
time, of the travelling of Seth to the gates of
Paradise, and including, therefore, the famous
Legend of the Cross.

This part may be considered as the real centre
of this Biblical History, as we have very often to
refer back to it, and as all the following events
are only natural consequences of the first sin, and
point to the last catastrophe — the crucifixion and
redemption already foreshadowed at the commence-
ment,

"We have already given (pp. 36-38) the contents
of this legend. Suffice it now to add, that in the
Slavonic text the oldest and most complete form
of it has been preserved, which, as we shall see, is

156 APPENDIX A.

a consistent and constituent part of all the Bible
Historiales. But whilst it is stunted in the West,
losing many primitive elements, the Slavonic form
by its greater completeness helps to explain it in a
more satisfactory way. — The non-consideration of
the latter prejudiced the otherwise valuable study
of Mr. W. Meyer, as has been proved by Wessel-
ofsky. The seeming incoherence and contradiction
in the statement of the Legend of the Cross by
Liutwin and Calderon, for instance, is made clear
and comprehensible through the comparison with
the Slavonic versions.

Following the account given by the Bible, we are
told of the murder of Abel by means of a stone,
the death of Cain, shot by Lamech, who is blind,
and led by a child. We learn also all the other
legends relative to the Biblical personages, and
all the apocryphal stories connected with them.
So also the wills of the twelve sons of Jacob, the
life and adventures of Joseph, the prototype of
Christ in every detail, his being sold, the temptation,
&c. The life of Moses is also adorned with legends,
out of which I select the episode relating to his
youth. The daughter of Pharaoh brought home
the child Moses to her father, who took him kindly
to caress him, when Moses suddenly seized the
crown, tore it from Pharaoh's head, and threw it
down. The crown had an image of an idol as
ornament. Pharaoh seeing this, remembered an

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 15;

old prophecy warning him against a son of his
slaves, who would at a time depose him from his
throne. He therefore cunsidered the deed of Moses

, as an ili-bodiug omen, and ordered him to be
killed. But a councillor saiil, " It is not right to

, kill a child ; but let us put him to a test. Two plates
shall be brought in, one filled with precious stones,
the other with fiery coals, and we will place them
before the child. If he stretches out bis baud for

■ the precious stones, then the child is intelligent,
knows what he does, and must die ; but if he
touches the coals, we will desist from killing him,"
The two plates were brought, and Moses grasped
some of the coals, put them in bis month, and

, burned his tougue. He was saved, but he remained
a stammerer for his life.*

We now quickly pass over the rest, as the de-
scription of the tea plagues, the Pascka and its
identity with the self-sacrifice of Christ, the manna
and its wonderful properties, the death of Moses,
and the very short sketch of the Judges till the
advent of David. Some texts stop at the history
of Saul ; others extend the narrative as far as
Solomon, including all the remarkable legends of
which he is the centre.

These are the meagre outlines of the Slavonic
Palma, two-thirds of which at least deal with the
contents of Genesis and Exodus, while the later

* Gaeter, Lit Pop., pp. 31S-320.

IS8 APPENDIX A.

portion is added only to form the link between
Moses and Solomon, who occupies the rest of the
book. Therefore the Palcea is often and rightly
called the enlarged or interpreted Genesis.

The first question which now arises, and which
I will proceed to answer, is, what is the origin of
the Palcea, and which the sources whence it has
drawn its materials ? Is this book to be considered
as a genuine production of a Slavonic author, who
out of many books compiled this Bible with his-
tories, or is the Slavonic literature indebted for it
to another, whence it was only translated ?

The name Palcea itself leaves no doubt that it is
of foreign, specially Greek production, just as the
other contemporaneous Slavonic literature is de-
rived from the Greek. The name Palcea is the
Greek IlaWaui BiaOrjfcrjy viz., the Old Testament,
the last word haviug been dropped in the course of
time.

The relationship in which the Slavonic transla-
tion stands to its Greek original is a matter some-
what difl&cult to decide, as no Greek text has yet
been published, and there is, indeed, only one copy
supposed to be in existence — a MS. in the library
of Vienna.

The texts of the Palcea, in spite of their general
unity, vary as to the extent of their contents, and
we find in other contemporaries of the Slavonic
literature and in the Hronographi legends which

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE.

'59

no doubt formed part of the Palcea, and which
are now missing entirely, or are found only in
a fragmentary form. Some of the legends, as,
for instance, that of the Cross, are further due
to a remodelling by the Bulgarian heretical

All these and similar considerations lead us to
the conclusion that, based upon a Greek original,
the Palma, as a popular book, and a book of pro-
nounced tendency, underwent in its Slavonic form
a change during the centuries, which, however,
did not alter it essentially. It became in part
shortened, partly amplified by materials drawn
from many sources, and developed according to
special views and purposes, but all are of the
, same origin, namely, Byzantine, and ultimately
Oriental.

The whole theological literature of Byzantium
points clearly to the East as its cradle, and there we
must look also for the origin of the Bible Bistoriale,
Not a few of the allegorical interpretations meet ua
in the early literature of the fathers of the Church,
especially such as Ephraem Synis in his Homilies,
and others. The East is also the acknowledged
homestead of the Apocrypha — in one word, all
the constituent elements of this literature are
Oriental.

The works of Josephus, the most widely spread
book in ancient times as well as in the Middle

i6o APPENDIX A.

Ages, contain many legends wbicli passed later om
into the ecclesiastical literature, as nearly all thft
■writers of the Occident made large use of ita
contents.

Not in these incidental references nor iu thes(
scattered legends do we see, however, the imme-
diate original of the Bible Historiale, but in entirely^
. similar books existent in the Jewish literatorej
The connection between these later and the Bibl
Historiale has been totally overlooked, because t
link was missing which united them with the;
Western literature,

I see the moat ancient iastance of an enlargi
history of the principal events of the Bible in thi
book called the Booh of the Jubilees, or r
the Book of Adam, which dates from at least i
early a period as one century before Christ.

This book contains the Biblical history from thoj
creation till the institution of the Pascha (Passover),'
clothed in the form of a revelation made to Moses
during his stay on Mount Sinai. Here we meet for
the first time compiled in the form of a hook nearly ■
all the minor legends of the Palma. We are aid
the beginning of the poetical and legeudiiry activityjl
which much later, and through various influence
into which I need not now enter, developed :
and produced the greater legends.

So we find here those relating to Cain and Lamecbji
to Noah, Abraham, and his children, &c. He

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. i6i

we find the minute description of the creation of the
angels, and of the elements over which they preside ;
further, of the number of works accomplished in
the six days of the creation, and so on.

A characteristic feature of this boob is that it
gives the names of the women of the Biblical nar-
rations, Prom this treatise they enter into all the
other compilations of later times, and especially
into the Bible Historiale, and into the so-called
Prophecies of Pseudo-Methodius.

The whole matter is chronologically arranged,
and the time is equally divided into jubilees, each
of forty-nine years, hence the name of the book.
But the book is more renowned under the name of
Leptogeyiesis, that is, Parva Genesis — the smaller
Genesis. No doubt the meaning thereof is sjjialler
in authority, as its size is greater than that of
the real Genesis. It has been also termed the
Book of Adam, as the part he plays is the most
prominent.*

The legendary matter included in the '•' Book of
the Jubilees " can be shown, then, in a Palestinian
Commentary of the Pentateuch extant in two texts,
one complete aud the other fragmentary. Being

* S; the wa; I may here mentiun that many other boi>ka of the Bame
, legendnij dmracter exist in the .lewisb literature, kom which one ie callei
the greater, the other the smaller, the cause cf tliie not being rer; clear.
So we bare al^o a Magna Genesis {Bereih-iih £abba], peihajis in uppoaition
to the above Parva Gtneiit; so, further, Seder Olam Babba aud Stiitr
(Ham Zulla; EUah Sabba and Eliah ZtUta ; Peiiila Eabba and Pesikta
ZtiUarUt, ka.

i6a APPENDIX A.

connected with the Hebrew text, this commentary I
has a loose form, and not the compact arrangement, J
of an independent book. Its value lies in the faobJ
that by means of it we can pursue step by step thefl
growth of the legend, this commentary not beingB
at any rate later than the fifth century.

To the seventh century, again, is ascribed anothetfl
work, this time again a hooJc, which has never been
considered in this connection — I mean the Pirke de
R. Eliezer, or the book called the Chapters of R.
Eliezer, which bears this title because it is divided
into fifty-four chapters, and the autliorship is falsely
ascribed to K. Eliezer, who lived in the first cen-
tury (A-C.)

But if we look nearer, we see that it is unfoi>.J
tunately a fragment of a larger book purporting ta
be a kind of legendary development of the Pent*
teuch (or rather only of Genesis and Exodus)«-j
similar to the "Book of the Jubilees," with whid
it has in common calendarial calculations, and thm
division of the matter in accordance with a special
view.

Out of these fifty-four chapters not leas thffi
forty treat of the events contained in the book i
Genesis ; namely, nine are devoted to the descrip
tion of the creation, ten to Adam, two to his d
dants till Noah, and so forth. The order of thaJfl
last chapters has been transposed, the book is sud-J
denly interrupted, and remaius without a real end. J

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE.

163

The contents are nearly all of a legendary character,
akin to that of the afore-mentioned book.

A striking resemblance to the Slavonic Palma ia
further afforded by the last book of Jewish origin
which I have occasion to mention — the SepUer
Hayashar. The major portion of this book deals
with Genesis and Exodus, the other three booke
of Moses, together with Joshua and the Judges,
being dealt with in two to three pages out of
nearly 150,

Many of the principal legends o£ the PalcBa have
here, I may say, their immediate source. Parts
correspond word for word with each other, as, for
example, the legend of Lamech, the above-quoted
legend of Moses, of his wonderful rod, originating
from Paradise, which becomes afterwards in Chris-
tian transformation the tree of the cross, and
others we shall meet with in the course of this
investigation.

Out of this Sepher Hayashar, together with the
Book of the Jubilees, arose the Greek Bible His-
toriale, the original for the Palma. That explains
also the curious disappearance at a certain period
from the Byzantine literature of the " Book of the
Jubilees," which till that time was very well known,
and quoted by nearly every Byzantine chronicler.
As has been shown by Fabricius, and now by
Ronsch, the " Book of the Jubilees " was known to
the fathers of the Church as early as the fourth cen-

1 64 APPENDIX A.

tury ; and down to the sixth century they, as well
as the Byzantine writers, cite large passages from
it ; while from that time no trace of that book is
left. It had been absorbed by the Bible Historiale.

That the Sepher Hayashar, or a very similar
book, contributed to the formation of that work,
there cannot be any doubt, seeing the literal agree-
ment between the two books on one side, and, on
the other, that there is no other source known for
many legends of the Palcea and of the Western
Bible Historiale than the SepJier Hayashar.

In order to become the Palcea, this compilation
had to be adjusted to the Christian and ecclesias-
tical point of view. The whole matter had to be
recast in a new mould, symbolical and allegorical
explanations had to be added, and the work from a
book of amusement changed into a book of polemi-
cal tendency.

Amongst other new elements, we can easily
detect some derived from the literary activity of
the Bogomils, who, like all heretical sects, eagerly
adopted old legends in order to turn them, by
slight changes and interpolations, into means of
diffusion of their teachings. Nothing pleases the
people more than allegories and parables. There-
fore the Palcea very soon became a popular book,
and exercised the deepest influence upon popular
fancy and its outcome, popular literature.

To this heretical influence is due the introduction

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 165

oi Salanael, the chief character of this dualistic
heresy, and the rdle played by him as the patron of
the earth ; and especially the Legend of the Cross,
which, as we know (p. 35), is directly attributed
to Popa Jeremiah, the founder of Bogomilism, who
is expressly mentioned as its author. Many inci-
dents in its contents confirm the heretical origin of
this legend in its present form.

This is a point upon which I lay the greatest
stress, as the Legend of the Cross forms an essential
part in all the different versions of the Bible Mis-
toriale. There is not one in the group we are
studying from which this legend is missing, while
the Comestor group is denuded of it.

It is one of the numerous links uniting the
Eastern with the Western Bihle Historiale to which
we now pass.

In the West, France was the cradle of the study
of the Bible and of its translation into the ver-
nacular. As will be seen hereafter, traces of this
translation can be followed out as early as the
tenth century or the beginning of the eleventh.
The oldest translations seem to be lost, and also
the translations of a Bihle Historiale. They were
no doubt supplanted by the translatioDs of Come-
stor's Historia Scbolastica. But we can recon-
struct the contents of that old Bihle Historiale
by many means. First of all, through the versified
Bibles, some of them dating from the twelfth

i66 APPENDIX A.

century (c. 1140); then through the Mysthres du
Viel Testament, based upon such a Bible Historiale.
Besides this we have some modern copies, all of them
representing an amplified text, corresponding to
the amplified text of the Palcea. There ia, finally,
alao an abridged form preserved in the Catalan,
Bearnais, and Proven9al dialect, discovered only in
the last ten to fifteen years, and known to students
under the most inappropriate name of Romanische
WeltchroJiik. This is also nothing else than the
Bible Historiale in a form resembling tbat of the
short text of the Palfsa.

I will now try to summarise briefly the con-
tents of each of these works, as far as their par-
ticulars bear resemblance to those of the Palfsa or
Sepher Hayashar, and are independent of Come-
stor, thus proving their identity of origin with the
former.

We start with the versified Bibles, following
closely the meagre extracts given by Bonnard,'
who, however, pursued another purpose in his
prScis, and is anything but satisfactory as regards
his account of the contents of the texts he dealt
with. A comparison with tbe texts themselves
will furnish, 1 am sure, more incidents confirming
the views now expounded, and perhaps some other
investigator may be induced to follow out more
closely what I only briefly indicate here.

* Boniia.rd, Tradnctions de ta Bible en Fran^aia . . . aa Mnyen Age, a

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE.

167

The 6rst to be mentioned is HevTnan de Valen-
ciennes (c. 1 140), whose versified Bible extends to
the history of Solomon. He cannot be thought
.dependent from Comestor, as he is much older
than the latter, who lived dr. 1175. The history
of the Bible is adorned by legends, amongst them
' the legend of Moses, different from the version of
Comestor, and corresponding to that quoted above
from the Palata. Two plates are brought to the
child, one with precious atones and the other filled
with coals, and not only one, as is said by Comes-
tor.* The two plates we find also in all other ver-
sified Bibles and in the Romance Chronicle.

Peculiar to these Bibles is the division of the
world into seven periods, after which the end of
the world shall come. At the end of some periods
Herman sums up the principal events, interrupting
in an abrupt way the course of the narration.
Exactly the same is the ease in the Romance
Chronicle. Eonnard says (p. 26) : " Par deux
fois Herman fait des principaux ^venements de
la Bible une rapide recapitulation qui ne se lie
k rien et qui coupe brusquement le recit."

This division of the history is a faint echo of
the old divisions in the Oriental prototypes of the
Bible Historiale, and the number seven is chosen
in accordance with the seven days of the creation,
alluded to already by Barnabas (cap. xii. v. 4) :
• Bonnari, p. 16.

i68 APPENDIX A.

"Consider, my children, what that signifies, He
finished them in six days. The meaning of it is
this — that in six thousand years the Lord God will
bring all things to an end." We find it further
said by Augustinus * — and what is more important
in this connection, in the apocryphal book of the
Bogomils, attributed to St. Johannes (mentioned
above, p. 64), where it is also expressly stated —
that the power of Satan will last for seven days,
that is, seven periods.t Other ecclesiastical writers,
such as Bede, St. Isidorus, &c., adopted the same
division, current in the Middle Ages.

I mention this at some length, because, as we
shall see, it served as a proof for the supposed de-
pendence of the Romance Chronicle upon Isidorus.

The legend of the Cross originating from Para-
dise is also contained in the versified Bible, and
other particulars of minor importance.

Decidedly independent of Comestor is also the
next author, Geffroi de Paris. He is identical
with Herman " pour les l^gendes introduites dans
le texte sacr^.'* \

Mace de la CharitS^ author of another versi-
fied Bible, borrowed his numerous glosses also from
another source than Comestor. Bonnard says expli-
citly (pp. 72, 73): '' It is certain that the abundant
glosses used by Macd to adorn his narrative are not
derived from P. Comestor's Historia ScholobsticaJ*

* End of De CivitcUe Dei. t ThUo, I p. 890. t Bonnard, p. 43.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 169

The foreign source can be much more clearly-
proved for EvraVs versifiecl Genesis. (lie lived
c. 1 198.) He cites Josephus, Bede, and Hierony-
mus, but surely only at secondhand. Comestor is
never mentioned, and what he quotes from the
Tuattre — this is tlie title for Comestor in writings
of later period — is not to be found in the Historia
Scholastica."

On the contrary, from the brief extracts given by
BonnardjWe can recognise the identity with the Bible
Mistoriale, and the author divides the history also
into periods. We find the death of Cain caused by
; Lamech. Continual reference is made to parallel
passages in the history of the New Teatament, with
the same allegorical and symbolical explanations ;
so in the lives of Jacob and Rachel ; so is Joseph
sold for thirty deniers, although the Bible clearly
Bpeaka of only twenty pieces of silver. This chauge,
made with the purpose of finding a parallelism
between Joseph and Christ, occurs already in chap-
ter ii. of the apocryphal Testament of Gad, the
son of Jaeob.t So also in the Boumanian " Hrono-
graf" cap, xi. The comparison between Joseph and
Christ is a favourite topic of the old writers of
homilies, such as Ephraem Syrus and others.

Treating the blessing of Jacob, when Evrat comes
to Dan, where it is said, "Dan shall be a serpent

■ Bonnard, p. in.
+ FabricLuB, VeL Test, i.
tiOD, Tihotuarov, i. p. 207.

p. 677; cf. a. p. 79. The Slavonic tranaJa-

I?o APPENDIX A.

in the way, an adder in the path," he gives at i
length the legend of Antichrist.

The explanation of Dan's blessing as pointing to ,
Antichrist is likewise given in the Palwa, and in \
more ancient sources, such as Hippolytus and St.
Theodoret of Cyprus (457). "

This is the more characteristic, as Evrat also
denounces very strongly the clergy and the bishops,
who are arrogant, and despise " le pauvre monde."
The attack on the clergy and the advocacy of
"the poor men," in combination with the legend
of Antichnst, cannot be a mere incident. It ia
well known that this formed the most important
book of the " Poor Men," the " Pauvres de Lyon," or
the Poor Valdenses. The Antichrist is represented
here by the Pope, residing in Rome-Babylon.

Add to this the fact that Evrat lived in the
; Champagne, and so we may presume that he him-
self belonged to the " Society of the Poor," which.
hypothesis will be confirmed when I shall establish
the origin of the Bible Historiale in France.

Another point worthy of consideration ia the
inversion in the order of the creation. According
to Evrat, the animals are said to be created on the
fifth day, although the Bible fixes their creation on
the sixth day. This is also no accident, as, curiously
enough, the order of the creation in the Myslhre du
Viel Testament differs widely from the authorised

* tJpeiuki, Tolkovaja Falaja, Eiizaii, 1S76, ^

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE.

171

version. According to the Mystkre, there were
created on the first day the four elements and the
angels ; on the second, the water was separated
from the earth, and fishes and trees were created ;
on the third, the sun and the moon ; on the fourth
the stars ; on the fifth, the birds and animals
{just as in Evrat), and the Paradise ; on tlie sixth,
man.* A similar transposition of the creation
we meet also in the Slavonic version {vide above,

p. li).

In the same way the other translations and tests
of versified Bibles furnish support for the exist-
ence of a Bible Historiale earlier than and inde-
pendent of the Historia Scholastica, and even more
widely spread and better known than the latter,
as it formed the basis for the versifications of the
Bible.

One single legend I will further mention here, as
Bonnard cites it as an example of the invention
of the poet, whilst it is in fact an Oriental legend,
and not at all due to the inventive power of the
author.

In an anonymous versified Bible it is said that
the father of the daughters of Zelophehadt is
identical with the man who, being found gathering
sticks upon a Sabbath-day, was stoned by the con-
gregation. J This identification is many centuries

■ J. de RothBohUd, Lo MiatiSre d
t Numbers xivii. t B,

: Viel Testament, Paris, 187S, i. j
t Numbers xv. 32 B.

172 APPENDIX A.

older than the versification, being already men-
tioned in the Talmud.*

The instances cited are scanty, as I could not
here enter into details, and as the work of Bonnard
gives only small extracts. The book of Berger was
not accessible to me.

Much richer is the harvest we can gather from
the My St ere y which lies printed before us in the
handy edition of Baron J. de Kothschild.

In this dramatised Bible, as we may term it,
we find again all the legends hitherto quoted in
the course of this volume. To these are also joined
many others, about which the editor says nothing,
but that " there are in these Mystbres . . . allu-
sions to Jewish legends not mentioned by Nicolas
de Lyra, and we do not know by what means they
came to be known by Christian writers" (i p. x.) :
" II y a dans notre mystfere . . . diverses allusions
k des legendes juives dont Nicolas de Lyre n'a pas
parl^, et nous ignorons par quelle voie elles ont et^
connues des auteurs chr^tiens."

The story of the creation, to begin with, is, as
we know, at variance with the Biblical. After it
follows the fall of Satan, the sin of Adam, and
the expulsion from Paradise. Here is inserted
the Froces du Paradis {v. 1 295-1882), which has
no foundation whatsoever in the Bible. When God

* Sabbath, fol. 96^ Sifri, ed. Friedmann, foL 33b § 113; Talmud,
Jerush. Synbedrin, i. c. 5 ; Jalkut, i. §§ 743-750, fol. 228»-^

about 1

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE.

I to coDdemo mankind, a dispute arises
between Juatitia and Misericordia. Justitia asks for
severe punishmeut, whilst Mercy pleads the cause
of man, pointing out bis weakness. The Lord then
decides in favour of Mercy, and promises the salva-
tion through His own Son.

The prototype for this heavenly drama is, as
shown by the editor in the Sepher Hayashar, to
be found also in the much older Genesis Rahha,"
whence it has been borrowed ; but what he failed
to remark, and what we have already noticed here,
is the identical legend in the German Historien
Bihel. The dispute in this version is before the
creation, more like the Jewish form, but the rest
approaches the French, thus forming a link between
these two offshoots of the old Bible Historiale.

We pass over smaller details ; suffice it to say,
that we also find here the legend of the Cross men-
tioned at the death of Adam, just as in the Paltea.
Cain marries his sister Calmana, Abel Delbora, as
it is told in the " Book of Jubilees." No doubt
from the same source are also the names of Noah'a
wife and of his sons' wives, although they are
not similar to the names given to them in the
"Book of Jubilees." Still we must not think that
this latter served as a direct source, or that it was
even known to the author of the Mysteres. The
names are rather due to the prophecies of Pseudo-

174 APPENDIX A.

Metliodiua, referred to above, which were also well ^
known and widely spread in the old Slavonic lite-
rature.

In the Mystere Cain also dies, shot by Lamech ;
Nimrod builds the Tower of Babel ; Ninus appears
here together with Nimrod, as in the Palesa and
Hronograf. The death of Harao, Abraham's bro-
ther, is related as in the Sepher HayasJiar. Haran
is thrown into the furnace and burnt to death.
The life of Joseph typifies that of Cbrist, as
in Evrat, the Palwa, and other Oriental writers.
Joseph's encounter with Potiphar'a wife happens on
the occasion of a festival given by Pharaoh; that
is why Potiphar and all the servants are absent
from the house. This is likewise to be found in
the above-named books. From the same sonrce
is derived Joseph's prayer, which is shortly referred
to in the Palcea. Further, in the Moaes episode
with the crown he tramples upon it, and so on many
parables occur till the end of the Mystere, which,
like the PalcEa, concludes with Solomon, and con-
tains a tale existing, as I have proved, only in the
PalcBa in the older literature.

This short sketch of the contents clearly proves
that the Mystkre is independent of the Historia
Scholastica, and has many a part in common with
the PalcBa, thus pointing necessarily to another
Bible Historiale as its foundation, the same which
is the basis for the Versifications. And really such.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 175

a Bible Histoi-iale seems to be preserved, but only in
a copy of the fifteenth century. M. Rothschild tells
us that there is in the National Library in Paris
a manuscript containing almost every legendary
or holy episode which has been brought on the
stage as a mystery (" h. pen prfes sans exception
les Episodes sacr^es ou l^endatres, qui ont ^te trans-
port^es sur la scfene," — i. p. si,) This manuscript
has the title Le Viel Testa/ment lequel tixticte les
Sistoires de la Bible, que aucuns appellent les
Histoires des Hebrieux ou des Juifes — that is,
"the Old Testament which treats the histories of
the Bible, called by some the histories of the
Hebrews or of the Jews." This is just the title of
, the MystSre, also called Viel Testament, and like-
wise the name of the PaUsa, the Old Testament,
with the addition " of the Jews," and also like the
title of the French manuscript — Palda na Judie :
Palaea Secundmn Judaeos*

The French manuscript, being modern, has cer-
tainly passed through purifying hands, which elimi-
nated as far as they could the apocryphal or other
not very orthodox parts. Not so was the older
text upon which the Mystire is directly based,
differing from the former in this point. The editor
says : " The differences {between the Mystere and
the manuscript) prove sufficiently that the authors

" To tlie Books of the Jevt is aJsa made referenca i
nicle. Vide Lespy, i. p. I g.

I the Komonce Chco-

176 APPENDIX A,

of the Mystbre did not have in their hands the
same version as our manuscript contains, but an
older and simpler version, which did not distinguish
the orthodox and the apocryphal books. This text,
which may perhaps be found some day, has furnished
them with the mystical comparisons between the
Bible and the New Testament, in which really con-
sisted the exegesis of the Middle Ages" (i. pp. xi., xii.)

In a few bold lines we find thus here sketched the

. principal features of the Palcea, viz., the blending

together of apocryphal with canonical books, and

the allegorical and mystical exegesis characteristic

of the Middle Ages.

Besides the complete or ample texts, we have
also an abridged Bible Historiale in three Eomance
dialects, of which two only are translations of the
third, viz., a Proven9al, Beamesian, and Catalan
Bible Historiale.

Of these, only the last two have been published,
while the Provenjal is still unpublished. The
Catalan has been minutely studied by Ehode,*
who came to somewhat curious conclusions with
regard to it. The fact that mediaeval historio-
graphy begins with the Biblical narrative and
joins to it later developments, had as a result
that the Palcea was incorporated into the Russian
chronicles, and that almost all mediaeval chronicles

* In Suchier Denkmseler der provenzalischen Literatur u. Sprache,
HaUe, 1883, 1 p. 589 ff.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 177

begin their history of the world with the Bible.
This misled Mr. Rhode, who took this short Bible
, Sistoriale for a chronicle, although it stops at
Solomon, like all Sible Historiales we have here-
tofore noticed. The result to which Mr. Rhode
comes may be shortly summarised as follows : —

The Romance original, from which this is a
translation, belongs to the thirteenth century, and
is compiled, or, better, pieced together, from six
different sources, viz., (a) the Vulgata (reap. Com-
estor) ; (fc) Apocrypha in the widest sense ; (c)
Elucidarium of Honorius Augustodinensia ; {d)
six great legends ; {e) the Chronicon of Isidorus
Hispalense ; and [/) an unknown source.

Let us now see how far each of these sources
baa contributed to our compilation, and in what
way. According to Mr. Rhode, the division of the
history into distinct epochs is due to Isidorua's
Chronicon ; but the comparison proves it to be so
insufficient, that Rhode himself is compelled to
acknowledge that it is only in the general outline,
namely, the division into periods. This similarity
is absolutely irrelevant and merely accidental, be-
cause we find precisely the same division in all
' other French Bible Historiales, as I have shown
above (p. 167).

The comparison in the contents between this
Romance Chronicle and the Elucidarium shows
even more discrepancy. Out of the sixty-seven

178 APPENDIX A.

columns the latter occupies in the edition of Migne,
vol. clxxii., only a few traits are alike, and then we
must assume that the author of the Romance Chro-
nicle had selected them out without any visible
order, a portion from here and a portion from there,
never following the sequence of the Elucidarium.
The apparent likeness comes therefore from the com-
mon source from which they have both been drawn.
What Mr. Ehode did further not succeed in show-
ing is the source of the Apocrypha and of the six
legends embodied in this supposed chronicle. He
admits them simply as sources, without telling us
how they penetrated to the South of France as early
as the thirteenth century. The six legends are the
following. The Legend of the Cross, which is very
well known to us as an essential part of the Bible
Historiale, and we need not look for Viterbo and
Beleth, to which Mr. Rhode refers (pp. 625-626),
as being similar to the form of the Chronicle. The
Denar legend, connected with Terah, Abraham's
father, has its source in the Orient, and occurs in an
Oriental writer, — a fact which was not noticed by
Rhode ; * and Evrat already points to the thirty
silverlings when he mentions that Joseph was also
sold for thirty silverlings. The further legends of
Judas, Veronica, and Constantine occur very often in
Slavonic literature and at an early period, so that
they might also have crept into the Bible Historiale.

* Fabricius, Vet. Test., il pp. 79-81.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE.

179

This view is further confirmed whea we try
to ascertain the unknown source. Two legends
are taken from this, viz., a legend of Abraham,
accordiug to which Abraham destroys the idols of
his father, and places the axe in the hands of the
supreme idol, left undestroyed, m order to say that,
for the sake of his gluttony, he killed the others,
to save all the dishes for himself alone. The
source, which was unknown to Mr. Khode, is tiie
' Sepher Hayashar, so often quoted, and to the same
source belongs also the other legend of Moses, in
the well-kaown form, as by Herman de Valenciennes,
PalcBa, kc.

Considered as a chronicle, this book has the
aspect of a mosaic pieced together in so curious a
manner, that often two consecutive lines are taken
from two different sources ; while considered, as 1
regard it, as a Bible Historiale, all is of one piece, of
one and the same source, and corresponds entirely
to other compilations belonging to the same class
of works.

For in an abridged manner we find here again
the principal characteristics, such as Bible history
interwoven with Apocryphal tales, the mystical
exegesis, and the New Testament predicted in. the
Old, the legend of the Cross, the chronological
reeapitulatious, as in Herman, and also one pecu-
liar point misunderstood hitherto. In this short
BSile Historiale, as well as in some of the versified

i8o APPENDIX A,

Bibles, we find not unfrequently the' exhortation :
"Hearken ! listen ! see ! " and other similar passages.
From this the editors and Mr. Rhode presumed
that the book was read in churches and schools,
and hence the exhortation. But if we bear in mind
that the contents is not at all orthodox, and that
the Bible in vernacular was never read in Catholic
churches, this explanation is at least a defective
one. Quite otherwise is the meaning when we com-
pare these phrases with the same exhortations so
frequent in the PcUcea, to which I drew attention
when describing it. It is a polemical work in the
Slavonic language, and addresses itself to the Jew
or other unbeliever. In the Romance Chronicle
we have the faint echo of it. Hence the otherwise
incomprehensible address.

Before now passing on to Italy, I will briefly
notice also the Noble Leyczon of the Waldenses,
consisting of a kind of short Bible history, with
expressed tendency. To each deed or command in
the Old Testament is opposed a similar passage of
the New Testament, which proves, according to
their views, the progress and superiority of the
latter.

Our knowledge of the Italian liter^-ture is scanty.
It begins with Dante, who, as I have said, was well
acquainted with the " Legend of the Cross " and
other Apocryphal writings. A noteworthy fact is,
further, that in Northern Italy arose the standard

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. i8t

legends, the Lcgenda Aurca, compiled out
of many spurious sources by Jacobus a Voragine.

A Bible Historiale can be proved to have existed
also in Italian, although of a relatively late period.
At the Council of Trent (1545-63), a book bearing
the title Fioretti , . . di tutta la Bihlia . . .
was condemned as full of heretical legends. Eonsch
mentions also a second book like to it, called El
Fiore di tutta la Bihlia Historiato. I regret that
I have not been able to see either of them ; they

. are wanting even in the British Museum. But aa
far as I can ascertain from Fabricius,* fion9ch,t
and some quotations of Wesselofsky, \ these are
likely to be nothing else than Italian Bible

■ Historiales, with the same or similar Apocryphal
contents. Eonsch describes it as follows : " Both
(viz., Fioretti and El Fiore) are in the main part
identical ; entire chapters, especially those at the
beginning, being analogous. The matter is in both
the same, only slightly changed in the latter, and
the number of chapters is different. The first has
137 (short) chapters, and the second 156. As far
as could be ascertained at a fleeting glance, the
matter was not derived directly from the ' Book of
the Jubilees,' but from other books like Pseudo-
Methodiua ; and from our comparison with regard
to the legends of Adam, they seem to be in nearer

• Vet Test, iL 1Z2 ; c/. i. 864.

f Vba Bucli dtiT JubilEeon, Leipzig, 1874, p. 469,

X Bftzjskauijft, z. p. 377, No. 4.

1 82 APPENDIX A.

relation to the Gadela Adam (Vila Adami), trans-
lated from the Ethiopic, than to the ' Book of the
Jubilees/ "

To this description we add that given by Fabri-
cius, who says that it contains the history from
the creation down to the time of Christ. It is full
of absurd legends, and those relative to Christ are
very much akin to the Apocryphal Gospels of the
Infancy.

In the life of Adam there is also a reference to
the '* Legend of the Cross," according to the quota-
tion of Wesselofsky.

Thus we have here the principal elements con-
stituting the Bible Historiale, the legendary his-
tory similar to the " Book of the Jubilees," though
only through the mediation of Pseudo-Metho-
dius, just as in the MysUre^ &c., legends of the
Biblical personages, Adam, and the Cross, and
the apocryphal Infancy tales, occurring also in
some of the versified French Bihle Historicdes.
We may now fairly admit the existence of a Bible
Historiale in Italy, independent of the Historia
Scholastica, and nearer to the Falcea. Here also
I must leave to others the fuller inquiry.

It remains now to pursue the Bible Historiale
in the German literature also. More than forty
manuscripts were studied by Merzdorf,* the editor

* T. Merzdorf, Historienbibel, vol c. and cL of Literarischer Verein,
Stuttgard.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 183

of the German Historien Bihel, and yet the material
is far from being exbauated. This proves the great
favour that book enjoyed in Germany, and con-
sequently the great influence it exercised. More
than one literary point, however, ia left unsettled.
In his valuable introduction, Merzdorf classifies
the different extant versions, and comes to the con-
clusion that there are two distinct classes of B'lhlc
Historiales falsely united under the same title. One
is entirely dependent on the Historia Scholastica
of Comestor, and the other is more or less a prose
transcription of Kudolf von Ems's Chronicle. It
is now established " that the Historia Scholastica
was early translated into French (c. 1286 or 1289}
by a certain Guiars de Moulin, canon of St. Peter's
in Aire (Aeria), near the frontier of Flanders, and
upon this version the later French Bible Historiale
is based. This was also translated and widely cir-
culated in Germany, and forms Group I,, edited by
Merzdorf as the real Hisloricn Bihel. As such,
we have nothing to do with it.

Besides this, Group II. is subdivided by Merz-
dorf into two branches (a) and {b), the first corre-
sponding entirely to the Chronicle of Rudolf, the
other, less complete, but more amplified, belonging,
as he asserts, to a later development of that chro-
nicle, due to another anonymous author.

• ReuEz, in Heraog, Real Encyclopffldie, liii. p. 30 S, e. v. RomnniBCbe
Bibeloberaetzung.

i84 APPENDIX A.

We will deal shortly with II«. It is not my
purpose to enter now into the vexed question as to
the priority of the versified to the prosaical form,
in so far as it regards mediseval literature. I, fraj
my own part, strougly believe that every artificial
poem ia based upon a prose original and not viai
versd ; and thus this falsely termed chronicle is onljS
the Bible history from the creation to the tima
of Solomon, exactly like the Paleea, the work t
Herman of Valenciennes, &c. ; and is no doubt bast
upon a prose original. Hence the apparent identity
of the present prose version lla. with the poem,
which is explained as a transcription of that metrical^
form. It may be that this latter exercised somd
influence upon the present text, but the comparisoM
with the other literatures shows that we may assumq
a prose original for the poem of Eudolf of Ems.

It is a remarkable fact tbat almost all the pr<x
ductions of this poet are more or less based i
' foreign or Oriental themes ; it is so with " Barlaani
and Josaphat," the Oriental tale of Buddha, ana
with the " War of Troy," for the first time treated
in Prench by Benolt de St. Maur, but before uq
known in the West; and, finally, with the "Gom
Gerhard of K61n," the Oriental origin of which ]
proved some years ago. It is therefore not unjufr
tifiable to presume also a foreign and prose origina]
for his chronicle also.

Unfortunately the poem is not printed, and wffl

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. ]8;

^re reduced to draw our information from the pam-
phlet published in 1839 by VUmar, who was the
first to devote a special inquiry to the subject.
The conclusion he arrived at was, that Rudolf is
dependent upon Comestor, but only in a remote
way, and he may Lave also made use of the Pan-
theon of Godfrey of Viterbo and Soliuns' Poly-
histor (Vilmar, p. 13). That is to say, that tbe
Chronicle of Rudolf bears some resemblance to
tbe above-mentioned, without being a verbal copy
of them, as is the case with the Bible history of
Group I. ; thus the chronicle has the same charac-
teristic features as the French and Romance Bible
Historiales which we have previously studied, and
might rightly also be termed Bihle Uistoriale,
Moreover, it cannot be assumed, aa some might be
induced to think, that Rudolf borrowed from the
Speculum Uistoriale of Vincentius of Beauvais, as
his chronicle was finished c. 1251, whilst the latter
composed his Speculum after 1254.

The same mistake which induced Rhode to call
the Romance Bihle Historiale "Chronicle" induced
the German writers to give the same name to the
poem of Rudolf, which does not extend farther
than to the time of Solomon, in a manner identical
with that of all the other Bible Historiales and
the Paleea. But, like the literary development of
Byzantium, where Malalas or Hamartolos or other
chroniclers incorporated the history of the Biblical

iS6 APPENDIX A.

period into their chronicle, joining the later world
history to the end of the Biblical, ao it happened
in Germany and Kussia also, where the chronicles
began with the -Palesa reap., with its German |
counterpart, the versified Bible of Rudolf of Ems. i
Hence the misleading name, which I hope will 1
soon be dispensed with.

Richer in details, and better known by some
extracts, is version 116., which is also considered as
a transliteration of a poem into a prose composi-
tion baaed upon a development of Rudolf's Bible,
due to an anonymous author. This more amplified
version is called the Chi-ist Hei-re version, after the
beginning words, whilst Rudolf's is distinguished as
the Richter GoU version, after the two initial words.
According to VUmar, this 116. is nothing else than
a literal translation of Comestor's Historia Schol-
astica and the Pantheon of Godfrey of Viterbo.

But if we are to believe the assertion of Merz-
dorf, tliat 116. represents exactly that unpublished ,
poem, then matters stand quite otherwise. Among ]
the manuscripts of 116. there are some true Bihlt ,
Historiales. To these belongs also a MS., once
in possession of a certain Mr. Schroder, who gives
the following description of it, " The MS. is i
copy from c. 1430-50, whose author might have )
lived in the thirteenth century (that is, contempo-
raneously with Rudolf !). It contains an abstract of j
the Biblical history down to the Maccabeans, without J

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 187

tte Prophets and Psalms. The test is not couched

after the Vulgata, but is probably taken from an
older German codex." *

What especially strikes us here is, that the text
of the Bible is not translated from the Vulgate, but
that it is due to some other Bource — the author
presumes a German version without any proof.
It is not necessary to add that this Bible history
is full of legends, apocryphal and otherwise.

A similar manuscript of the fifteenth century,
with Illustrations, is noted by Von der Hagen, who
pubHsbed the complaint of Adam after his expul-
sion from Paradise in a wording like to the legend
of Adam in the Palcea, &c., and a parallel to it
from the above manuscript.

Mr. Merzdorf, who numbered this manuscript,
and also arranged it amongst those of Xlh., unfor-
tunately considered the legendary parts to be
irrelevant, and omitted them entirely, being satis-
fied only with a few remarks. He did not pay
any great attention to this smaller group generally,
as it was of secondary importance to him, although
a better inquiry would have disclosed to him the
real value of this version.

There still remains a third manuscript belonging
to the same group, once in possession of a certain
J. D. Miiller, afterwards in that of the Pastor
Goetze, famous through his controversies with Les-

* Merzdorf, pp. 34-35.

i88 APPENDIX A.

sing, and at present iu the municipal library of '
Hamburg. Out of this manuscript, also from the
fifteenth century (c. 1458), Miiller gave some ex- .
tracts of the creation reproduced by Fabricius,*
enabling ua thua to recognise the relationship be- 1
tween these manuscripts and the Bible Historiale.

The history begins with the dispute between I
Mercy aud Justice, as in the French Mystery. ■
The mystical parallelism between the Old and j
New Testament is consistently pursued through-
out the history. Very detailed is the description
of the angels who fell, during three days and three
nights, from heaven into hell. The rank and order
of the angels is explicitly stated. The description of
how the world and Adam were created foUows, and
it is said that Adam fell into a deep slumber, wherein
he saw prophetical visions telling him of the future
redemption. During this time Eve was created, not
by God Himself, but by an angel. Here the author
mentions the Jewish legend that Adam had had
another wife, created, like him, out of loam and
outside Paradise, while Eve was created from hia
rib in Paradise. The legend referred to is well
known in Jewish literature, and appears in the
Alfabetum Pseudo-Siracidicum {dr. eighth cen-
tury).t '

The Bible Historiale goes on to say that the

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 189

> serpent which deceived Eve was Lucifer, and the
serpent walked upright and had a woman's head.
After the sin Adam and Eve repented of it by a
severe penitence in the waters of Gihon. Thia
episode corresponda exactly with the version pub-
lished by Von der Hagen. We are told also that
Cain was born together with his sister Calmana,
and Abel with Delbora,whom he marries afterwards,
just as in the Mystery and Pseudo-Methodius.

Amply developed are the death of Adam and
the legend of the Cross, intimately connected with
it. Seth goes to the gates of Paradise to bring
food for his sick father. The angel Michael appears,
and tells him that 5200 years must elapse before
the sin of Adam will be atoned, and then God's
Son will come with the oil of mercy. Seven days
after Adam dies, and also Eve ; all as in the similar
legend in the Palcea, Mystere, &c,, drawn from the
same apocryphal source.

The extract given by Fabricius stops here, but it
suffices to show that we have before us a work quite
analogous to the Bible Historiale described above.

Naturally the more modern a copy is the more
probable it is that it was influenced by other similar
works, as, for instance, the Historia Scholastica.
But, nevertheless, all the characteristic features
have been preserved, and point to another inde-
pendent and certainly older soxirce.

One point (which we reserved for the last) in the

igo APPENDIX A.

description of this German Bible Historiale is of
the highest importance, as it will enable ue to find
the connecting link between this and the Slavonic
versioB,viz., "When God was going to create heaven .
and earth. He created first the angel Satael, and fl
afterwards the other aiigela." This Satael is nobody
else than the Satanael of the Palwa, occurring
only in Bogomilian writings, and due solely to their
heretical influence. In perfect harmony with this
is also the presumption that Satanael was the first
being created, the most powerful, and superior to
the other angels, whence his arrogance and fall.

Curiously enough, Satanael is also mentioned in
. the Historia Scholastica of Comestor, where he is
identified with Lucifer, but falsely explained as
Satan : adversary — £!l : to God {sic dictus est ante
lapsum, vel forte post lapsum, Satan, quasi adver-
sarins, El : Deo (Glosse to Genesis, c. iv.) This
brings us to the question as to the origin of the
Bible Historiale in France, and also to the other
question, whence did Comestor draw the materials
for his Historia Scholastica, especially that which
regards the Biblical legends 1 I cannot enter here
into this difiicult question in any detailed manner.

As sources, Comestor himself mentions, among
others, Methodius and Josephus, The former la,
as I have proved, a compilation of the " Book of
the Jubilees ; " and as to Josephus, it is remarkable
that many a legend professedly taken from his

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE.

works is not to be found in thei

Jiem ; so, for instance,
the story of Potiphar is nowhere to be found in
Josephus, although contained in the Jerusalem
Targum (Genesis xxxix. i) and in the Talmud.''^
Then the story of Moses's two marvellous rings, and
that Cain married his sister Calmana, said to be
taJien from Josephus, is really from Methodius, and
so forth,

On the other hand, a comparison with the old
French versified Bibles, and even the German,
shows, notwithstanding great discrepancies, a simi-
larity which cannot be denied, and which can only
be explained by admitting a common source. It
ought not to be forgotten that these latter also
very often refer to Josephus and Hieronymus,
although they certainly never made direct use of
their works. Noteworthy is the same fact in the
Palaa, where Josephus is also avowedly quoted,
and here, also, surely through the mediation of
some other work,

The source for the Western Bible Historiale, and
in some way for the Historia Scholastica, is there-
fore to be sought in the Greeko-Slavonic Palasa,
brought by currents, we shall soon learn, from the
East into France and Provence.

One of the striking features is the free admission
, of apocrypha and their blending together in one
Bible. These apocrypha do not appear before that

* Tinctiit Sotah, f. 136.

19! APPENDIX A.

period in the West, with the exception of England,
where the Evangelium Nicodemi seems to have
penetrated very early (eighth or ninth century), but
which exercised no influence upon the surrounding]
literatures.

The Infancy Gospels are also of a recent date.
Herman of Valenciennes, who was the first to ver-
sify the Bible, was also the first who versified the
Gospels. Comestor did not know them ; only a
century later they were inserted in the Speculum
of Vincentius. '

Not in orthodox, but in heterodox circles dii
the Apocryphal literature Lave its rise and develop-]
ment ; and here also arose the Bible Historiale,
whose appearance coincided strangely with a remark-
ahle movement which took place at that time
France and throughout the centre of Europe.

At the beginning of the thirteenth century arose
a society in Metz for the purpose of reading the
Bible in the vernacular. Till that time the Bible
only known in the Latin translation of Hieronyc
being thus accessible only to the clergy, while thi
people were absolutely ignorant of it. The
the reading and understanding the Bible was tl
the members of that society soon began to deepii
the priests and the bishops, whose deeds and doi
trines did not at all harmonise with the teachini

e

I

• R. Eheinsch,diePaeudoevangelie}
1879, pp, 7, 16-18.

L u, germ. Literiktar, Hall^

THE BIBLE IIISTORIALE. 193

. the Bible. The Bishop of Metz immediately
denounced the society to Pope Innocent III., who
first allowed the reading of the Bible in the ver-
nacular, as there was no law which forbade it. The
gap between the clerics and laymen consequently
widened more and more, and threatened to become
irreparable. This could never be in the interest
of the Church ; so the Bishop remonstrated ener-
getically against it to the Pope, urging the adoption
of a speedy remedy, as the members of the Bible-
reading society rebelled also against the authority
of the Pope himself. Innocent being compelled
to do something in the matter, appointed a com-
mission, consisting of the Bishop of Metz, the Abbot
of Cistercium, and three other Abbots, to investi-
gate it, and to examine the proceedings of that
society.

The result was that the members of the Bible-
reading society were convicted of being heretics and
their Bible was pronounced full of heretical contents.
In consequence thereof the society was dissolved and
the Bible burnt. With this fact begins the per-
secution of the Bible in the vernacular by the
Catholic Church, which finally decreed the prohibi-
tion of reading the Bible in the vernacular at the
Council held at Toulouse in the year 1229. After
this no layman dared read the Bible unless in Latin,*

This early date proves that at the beginning of

* Neooder, KircheDgescbichte, 4th ed., Gotba, 1S64, vol. viii. pp. 37-42.

194 APPENDIX A.

the thirteenth century the Bible must have been
widely circulated and eagerly read in the ver-
nacular. Indeed, the translated Bible read by the
society in Metz was an imported one, brought
thither by the Waldenses, as is expressly stated.*

We are thus in possession of the link which
connects the translation of the Bible into the ver-
nacular and the circulation of it, with the heretical
sects flourishing about that time, especially in the
South of France.

There is now every evidence to prove the exist-
ence of such a translation, and the profound know-
ledge of it amongst the heretical sects, said by all
the contemporary writers to be very well versed
in the Bible.

This is a common characteristic for every dis-
senting movement which appears in the history
of religion, and especially of the Christian Church.
The separation is based upon and supported
by the real or pretended better understanding
of Holy Scripture. Without going into further
details, already Petrus SiculuSy speaking of the
Paulicians in Asia Minor, asserts that even before
their emigration from Armenia they possessed a
translation of the Bible, and that their women
were well acquainted with its contents. Cedrenus
adds that they brought it with them, coming into
the Byzantine empire.

* Neander, 2. c.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE.

"95

That the SlavoniaDs had the Bible translated at
an early period has been often enough stated in
these pages. In the year 1007 the heretical
sects in the Occident were already accused of
reading the Old and New Testament, only with
polemical purposes, and with the intention of
denying the truth therein contained. And finally,
Meijierius, who is the chief source for our know-
ledge about the Albigenses, states that almost
every heretic in the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies knew at least the New Testament by heart
in the vernacular.* And they not only knew the
Bible in the vernacular, but also taught that the
translated Bible had the same power aa the Latiu
Bible, t

Interual evidence proves further that the oldest
French Bible was not translated from the Vulgate,
but from a Greek original, or from another which
in its turn was translated from the Greek version of
the LXX, One at least of the German texts — the
others have not yet been studied from this point of
view— is not derived from the Vulgate, but from
another test, supposed by Schroder to be an older
German ; but this, lastly, is also not more than a
translation, and a different one from the Vulgate.

The literary and missionary activity of the Albi-
genses is too well established to be doubted. We

* Faber, WaldenaeB, p. 400, No. I, and p, 49a.

t C. U. Hahn, Gescliiohte der Ketzer im MLttelalter, Stuttgart, 1S45,
vol L p. 94.

196 APPENDIX A,

find already in 1025 the record of their schools,
where they taught their doctrines and expounded
the Bible.* The same Reinerius tells us that the
Cathari had more schools than the theologians,
and his own words are : " In almost every locality
in Lombardy, Provence, and other places, their
number exceeded by far that of the theologians,
and they had more pupils, who disputed openly and
induced the people to enter into discussions with
them ; and they preached in tents and fields, and
nobody dared stop them, as they had powerful and
numerous protectors. In the diocese of Padua alone
they had more than forty-one schools, not counting
those of Germany and France." t

At the same time the translation of the Bible
into the vernacular was undertaken by Petrus
Valdo (c. 1 1 70), founder of the sect of the Wal-
denses, who is said to have paid two priests —
Stephan de Ansa and Bemhard Ydras — for their
work, as at his command they translated the
Gospels and other Biblical books into the Romance
language. J Soon afterwards (1179), that is, only
eight years later, a deputation of the Waldenses
waited upon the Pope, Alexander III., during the
time when a Council was held in Rome, with the
object of obtaining his approbation for a French
translation of the Psalms with glosses, and several

* Faber, I. c, p. 358 ft t Ibid., I c, p. 361.

X Neander, L c, viii p. 409 ; Faber, p. 456.

THE BIBLE BISTORIALE. 197

other parts of the Old and of the New Testament.
Gualterus Mapes, who gives a graphic description
of their appearance, was also appointed to discuss
with them concerning their dogmas. The result
wa3 a scornful dismissal of their demand.*

There is no douht, as is expressly stated, that the
dismissed translation was not at all literal, but was
amplified by glosses, that is, it was a paraphrastic
translation. t Further noteworthy is the difl'ereDce
in the wording when tlie New and when the Old
Testament is spoken of. The Old Testament is
never mentioned entirely; only parts of it are
translated, whilst generally the Gospels are wholly
translated. This is easily explained when we bear
in mind the form of the Bihle Historiale, that the
translation confined itself to the historical parts,
leaving out the rest, and therefore is only spoken
oi parts of the Bible.

If we might draw a conclusion from tlie con-
temporary Jewish literature, the character of this
paraphrastic Bible, or Bible with explanatory
glosses, might have been somewhat similar to the
text of the Bible together with the Commentary
' of R. Salomo Itzhaki (Raahi), who lived in Troyes,
and died 1 105, with the single difi'erence that here
all is written in Hebrew, while in the former case

* Faber, I, e., p. 471.

t " Qui librum Domino Faps prsaent&TeruDt lingna eatacriptxtitt gaUica
in quo textue et ghiita PsaJterii plurimorumque Legia utrinaque libcorum
oontinebatur,"

198 APPENDIX A.

all is translated. This Commentary, whieh may be
considered as consisting of glosses to the Biblical
text, is full of legendary explanations, drawn from
the old Aggadic literature, and the influence it ex-
ercised even upon the Christian commentators is
pretty well shown by the example of Nicolas de
Lyra, who is greatly indebted to Rashi.

It is not my intention to follow out here the
friendly relations which existed between the Jews
and the heretical sects in France, and how far they
mutually borrowed from each other. Suffice it to
say, that many a zealous priest of the Catholic
Church complained bitterly about this free inter-
course.*

Eeturning to the Bible of the Waldenses and of
the other sects, its contents must have been ampli-
fied by glosses of a legendary character, and no
doubt contrasting with the dogmas of the ruling
Church, as the Council of Metz declared it to be
heretical, and condemned it to the pile.

This points clearly to our Bible Historiale, whose
prominent peculiarity is the adoption to so large
an extent of apocryphal tales and legends, which
constitute its chief elements.

The diffusion of the apocryphal literature in
Europe is due in a certain measure to the activity
of the heretical sects, originating especially in the
Middle Ages in Bulgaria, with which country they

* Neander, L c, viii. p. 43 flf.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. igg

Bever lost connection. Thence they also carried
this literature to the West, and it is by no means
an exaggeration to presume the original identity of
the Western Bible Historiale with the Palcea.

The eoineidence of so many facta brought under
consideration is so strikiog, that there cannot be
any other explanation for it than to assume the
former unity, preserved even through the manifold
changes which the Bible Historiale underwent in
course of time and in different countries. The
maiu features remained, and we have been able to
trace the existence of such a Bihle Historiale back
to the twelfth century as the basis for the versified
Bible^ for the Mystere, and for the abbreviation in
the three Romance dialects of Beam, Provence,
and Catalonia.

The crusade against the Albigenses broke down
the poetical life of Provence, and at the same
time stamped out every trace of the heretical lite-
rature. What wooder that the Bihle Historiale
suffered the fate encountered by all similar works.
But the influence could not be totally obliterated,
and even in the orthodox disguise we could recog-
nise the old Bihle Historiale.

Merely as an additional remark, for it leaves a
wide field for conjecture and special studies, I
venture to give an explanation of the name of that
illustrated Bible commonly called Bihle of the Poor.

200 APPENDIX A.

Up to the present day nobody has succeeded
in either tracing the origin of that Bible or in
explaining its name. Berjeau, if I am not mistaken,
is the last who devoted a study to this question.
(The later publication of Laib and Schwarz deals
merely with the windows of Hirschau and the Ger-
man texts of the Biblia Pauperurn). He describes
the Biblia Pauperurn as follows : —

" The Biblia Pauperurn is a set in the first edition of forty,
and in the second of fifty woodcuts, disposed in three horizontal
compartments, which we will call upper, middle, and lower,
each being itself arranged in three vertical divisions, which may
be distinguished as left, centre, and right, all divided from each
other by an architectural framework, imif orm alternately for all
the verso and recto pages of the work.

"The left division of the upper compartment contains a
number of lines (which are not rhythmical) in black letter, with
very contracted abbreviations, in which the subject of the Old
Testament immediately under is explained in few words, with a
reference to the centre subject, taken from the New Testament.

" The right division contains likewise the explanation of the
subject on the right, with its reference to the same subject of
the New Testament represented in the centre of the page.

" The centre vertical division of the upper compartment
represents a double window, with a prophet on each side of a
central pillar. The name of the prophet is inscribed under his
bust, which generally holds the end of a scroll, on which is
written some sentence from that prophet, referring to the central
subject

" The middle horizontal compartment, with its three vertical
divisions, forms the principal part of the woodcut, the left and
right subjects being taken from the Old Testament, while the
central subject is always taken from the New Testament ; this
latter only being in chronological order.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 201

" The lower compartment contains, like l&e upper one, in the
centre, in a douhle window, the buate of two prophets, each
liolding a scroll, with his name and a sentence taken from his
prophecies, and referring to the centre subject. In the blank
spaces on each sitle is a leonine Verso explaining the subject
aboYQ ; while at the bottom of the page, immediately under the
busts of the prophets, is another leonine verse explaining the
central design." *

In order to make it clearer, I here give the trans-
lated contents of leaf v.

" The Holy Family in Egypt, — Upper com-
partment, left. "We read in the thirty-first and
thirty-third chapters of Exodus that when Moses
had come to the foot of Mount Sinai, he alone
ascended the mountain to receive the Law; and
when he had done this and was descending, he
saw the molten calf which Aaron had made of gold.
Moses himself having thrown away the Tables,
destroyed the calf and broke it up ; which well
figured the idols falling in a heap when Christ
entered Egypt."

Next to it the double window ; at the left is the
bust of the Prophet Hosea, with the inscription ;
' He shall break down (their altars),' taken from
Hosea x. 2. In the next window, to the right, is
Nahum with the scroll : ' Out of the house of thy
gods will I cut off the graven image and the
molten image' (Nahum i. 14). The next white
square, forming the upper right compartment, eon-

* Berjeau, Biblia Pauperum, London, 1S591 pp. 3-4.

202 APPENDIX A.

tains the following passage : ' We read ia the first"
book of Samuel (chap, v.) that the Philistines had
placed the ark of the Lord, that they bad taken in
■war, near Dagon, their god. Those who entere
the temple in the morning found Dagon lyiDg i
the ground, and both his hands broken off: wh
figure was truly fulfilled when the Blessed Virgin
came with Christ, ber child, into Egypt ; then
the idols of Egypt fell into a heap ; and it figures
the Virgin, who with Christ enters the state
of trial into which infidels through error baveJ

The middle is occupied by the thn
described, and underneath the lower compartment]
contains on the left front the leonine verse : ' By
Moses the sacred image of the calf was destroyed,'!
Then the bust of Zachariah, with the inscription iM
' I will cut off the names of the idols out of thej
earth' (Zach. xiii. 2). Next to it is the bust o£j
Zephaniah, with the words : 'The Lord will famieh
all the gods of the earth ' (Zeph. ii. 11). Above in
ja the other leonine verse, explaining the design v
' The ark is made the cause of the sudden ruin of
Dagon.' And finally, at the bottom of the page,
just under the lower double window, and thus
under the design of the centre, is the third leonine
verse : ' The idols fell swiftly when Christ was
present.' "

Berjeau says further : " It would not be eaay tOil

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 203

ascertain who was the author of the Bihlia Paupe-
rwm, who conceived the idea of such a book, and
who composed the three lines of poetry which
explain the three subjects on each page- The rest
of the text contained on both sides of the upper
compartment is not rhythmical, as it has been said)
but contains mere quotations from the Old Testa-
ment and Prophets with reference to the central
subject taken from the New Testament." ^' Never-
theless, Berjeaui" suggests that Vincentius of
' Beauvais might be the author of the text, on no
other ground than that he is now acknowledged to
be the author of the Speculum HumancE Salva-
tionis, which was likewise engraved and printed by
the xylographer of Haarlem to whom the engravings
of the Bihlia Pauperum are attributed.

But before we enter into the study of this, for
us, most important point, we will deal shortly with
the history of this Bihlia Pauperum, its date, and
the origin of the drawings.

" It is pretty certain that the author or copyist of
this test was not the artist who made the designs.
The circumstance that there are sensible variations
between the drawing of the subject and its Latin
explanations shows sufficiently that the artist did
not understand the literal meaning of the Latin
text." J This text belongs, therefore, to an earlier
period, and the original manuscript may be traced

• Loe, eil,, p. 5. + Loe. cit., p. 23. t Loe. cii., p. 5.

204 APPENDIX A.

to the twelfth or thirteenth century, as the leonine
verse and the abbreviations used in the text point
clearly to that period.

The costumes of the block-book announce a more
J recent period, namely, 1410-20. The conclusion
at which Berjeau arrives as to the time when this
first block-book arose, and the circumstances to
which it owes its origin, is : t ** By its architectural
framework our block-book may be said to belong
to the Tuscan school, as illustrated in the Duomo
di Orvieto, in Santa Maria di Toscanella, in San
Ministo di Firenze. The drawings, imitated from
the fresco paintings of Italian convents, most likely
by John van Eyck, ornamented some costly MS.
before being engraved on wood by some of the
Jiguersnyders so numerous in the Netherlands at
the end of the fourteenth and the beginning of the
fifteenth century. The block-book was afterwards
the model on which were made and painted the
windows of the celebrated Convent of Hirschau,
and was the starting-point of numberless imita-
tions by the early German painters and wood and
metal engravers, such as Springinklee, Albert Dlirer,
Schaufielein, Hans Hemmling, &c."

Other reproductions of later periods have sometimes
changed these drawings. I will not attempt here
to enter into the difficult and unsettled question as
to the origin of those Italian wall-paintings which

* Loo, cU,, p. II.

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 20;

served as a model for the block-book. How did this
kind of picture arise just in a place and in a time at
■which a strong religious, or more properly heterodox,
movement was prevalent in that country ? How
was it that it was just there that art for the first
time emancipated itself from the official Byzantine
iniluence ? Tisehendorf has dwelt at length on
another very interesting point, viz., when and how

' far did the apocryphal tales creep into the Chris-
tian art of painting ? Traces of this are also extant
in our block-book; for instance, on folio 2, where
the ox and ass are drawn standing near the crib in
which Christ is lying, though no mention is made
of them in the Gospels. They are derived from
the apocryphal Gospel of Infancy. Or on folio 6,
the story of the fall of the idols in Egypt, related
above, and so forth.

This and other similar questions must be left for
the moment undecided, and so also the question
as to whether there was not an illustrated block-
book or MS. older thau that now known, and which

. underwent the same refinement and change through
John van Eyck as was effected in the case of his
drawings by his followers.

There is no doubt, however, that the original test
is much older; and yet some have tried to ex-
plain the name Bihlia Pauperum, or Bible of the
Poor, as the name given to the block-book, which
was naturally cheaper than the illustrated MS.,

2o6 APPENDIX A.

and therefore termed the " Bible of the Poor," i
every man was enabled to buy it. But -whoeve)
is acquainted, however slightly, with the prices s
works fetched in the fifteenth and sixteenth (
tunes would immediately recognise that even im
the shape of a block-book such a book was by fal

, too dear to be bought by a poor man. The na
must be, therefore, of quite a different origin, i
was surely the name of the text itself, which is t
kind of abridged Bible, and served as a basis fcHJ
the later or contemporary drawings.

Indeed, if we look more accurately into this tex^
we again find the elements of the Bihle Historialei
with the same characteristic opposition of the 01c

' to the New Testament, and fulfilment in the lattei
of the predictions given in the former. What i
more, out of eighty texts which form the forty paj
two in the upper compartment of each page, i

' leas than seventy-six are taken from the Old Teata
ment, and especially from the following books :-
Twenty-one from Geneaia {fol. i, 5, 8, 10 bis, l^
16, 17 his, 18, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 32, 33, 3^
38, 39); six from Exodus (2, 6, g, 18, 26, 35
one from Leviticus (4) ; four from Numbers (2,
13, 25); one from Deuteronomy (38); four frc
Judges (28, 29, 33) ; twelve from Samuel (3, 4,
6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 16, 21, 28, 37); fourteen from Kin
(3, 7, IX his, 14, 19 his, 22, 23, 24, 34, 35, 3^
37) ; two from Jonah {27, 29) ; three from Danial

THE BIBLE HISTORIALE. 207

31) ; three from Song of SolomoQ (30, 31,
40) ; one from Ezra {15) ; one from Esther {36) ;
one from Job (39) ; two from Maccabees (15, 21) ;
whilst from the New Testament there are one from
Matthew (20) ; one from Luke (32) ; and two from
the Apocalypse (20, 40).

From this proportion we see that all the texts,
; loithout any exception, are taken from the historical
hooks of the Bible only, like those of whieh the
Bible Historiale is composed, and none from the
Prophets.

The test itself closely resembles that examined
by us as the Bible, Historiale. Thus we again find
here the identification of Joseph with Christ.
Joseph is further sold for thirty pieces of silver,
whieh clearly denotes that the author did not take
the passage directly from the canonical Bible, but
from an uncanonical source, here the Bible Histo-
riale. The quotations are aJso never literal, but
are rather contractions of the Holy Writ, just as
they are to be found in the above-named book.

To these internal evidences as to the origin of
■ this short Bible is also added the name it bears as
Biblia Paiiperum.

The Waldenseswere best known under the name
of the Poor of Lyons {Pauperes Lugdunenses).
Under this name they appeared at the Council in
Home, and under the same name they became famous
for centuries,

2o8 APPENDIX A.

Many a common point between their Bible and
their Noble Leyczon induces me to ascribe to them
also the authorship of this short Biblical treatise,
perhaps from the beginning already accompanied
with rough sketches, out of which arose the later
more refined drawings. And so it got the name of
Bihlia Pauperum, or the "Bible of the Poor,"
viz., the Bible of the Poor of Lyons, preserved as
such until the present time.

It is not without interest to notice that nearly
all the first block-books deal with subjects favoured
in the highest degree by the heretical sects, and
became popular books. Thus the Antichristy the
Legend of the Cross, the Apocalypse of St John,
are among the oldest block-books, all containing
subjects with which we have become familiar in
the course of these pages.

The identification of the Poor with the Waldenses,
or the Poor of Lyons, is not only not far-fetched, as
it might seem at the first glance, but is sLlso the
only plausible explanation of the title, as it ex-
plains at the same time the origin of the book.

APPENDIX B.

THE ORIGIN OF THE GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET.

D0BEOV8KY, the founder of Slavonic philology, at
the close of the last century for the first time
drew attention to a mode of writing employed in
some Slavonic books totally different from the
Cyrillian. This question was vigorously taken up
by Kopitar when he published in 1836 the Slavonic
text written with such characters, and known thence-
forth under the name of " Glagolita Clozianus."

The problem which presented itself thus to the
students of Slavonic philology was to ascertain
the date and the probable origin of this long-for-
gotten or totally neglected alphabet.

The most opposite views were taken upon the
matter, and a discussion ensued which lasted nearly
half a century, till at least one point was generally
agreed upon, viz., the greater age of the Glagolitic
alphabet and its priority to the Cyrillian.

The reasons brought forward are twofold : philo-
logical and palEeographical, A close inquiry into
the nature of the language represented by the Glago-

2IO APPENDIX B,

litic texts proves it to be of the most archaic form,
and to approach as closely as possible that lan-
guage which is considered by Professor Miklosich
to be the basis of the so-called Church Slavonic
or Old Slavonic language — ^the Slavonic dialect,
namely, into which the Apostles Cyril and Method
are said to have translated the Bible for the first
time. In these Glagolitic texts are thus preserved
the oldest specimens of the Slavonic literature,
whilst the language of the Cyrillian text is more
modern, and already contains traces of dialectic
influences, chiefly Bulgarian peculiarities, as is
only natural, when we remember the rise and de-
velopment of the Slavonic literature in Bulgaria.
Among these texts we do not find anything of
so hoar an antiquity as some of the Glagolitica
possess, where one or another is considered to be
no more than a hundred years distant from the
lifetime of the apostles.

So far the philological reason. To this the palaeo-
graphical now comes as a powerful support. Just
as we find in the West of Europe palimpsests^
that is, parchments which have been written upon
twice, the first writing having been erased, so we
find them in the Slavonic literature, and the pecu-
liar thing is, that the^r^^ writing has always been a
Glagolitical, which was erased and a new Cyrillian
text written upon it. Never up to the present day
Las the contrary been discovered. We know of no

THE GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET. 211

instance in which a Glagolitical text has been
written upon a primitive Cyrillian.

For these two reasons the Glagolitza, as we will
in future term this alphabet, calling the other
Gyrillitza, is now universally accepted to be the
older alphabet, superseded in a later period by
a more modern, which usurped its name, and not
the opposite of this, as was formerly believed.
The palimpsests also show that the Cyrillian writers
had Glagolitical tests at hand.

The next question is the origin of this alphabet,
la it a primitive one or a derived ? and if the
latter, whence is it derived, and on what model is
it formed ?

My purpose is here only to enter into the dis-
cussion of the origin of the Glagolitza, and not into
the history and development of the Giagolitic
literature, that is, of the works written and pub-
lished in these characters. I confine myself to the
characters themselves, to point out their peculiarity,
endeavouring to give a new solution to this oft
discussed problem.

We have to consider first the forms of the
letters, and then the order in which they are
arranged. Of minor importance, and yet still im-
portant, are the curious names the letters of this
alphabet possess. The difficulty of esplaining the
names and the order of the Cyrillitza, as these are
identical with the Glagolitza, was no less in former

211 APPENDIX B.

times when the Glagolitza was unknown. More-'
over, the form of some letters of the Cyrillian
alphabet was puzzling, as their origin could not
easily be traced,

Aa regards this alphabet, it is now proved that
the main part of it was taken from the Greek uncial
writing, and the signs employed for sounds strange
to the Greek are due to the Glagolitza, whence
they were borrowed by the later compiler of this
alphabet, who, as it seems to be, was St. Clemens
{t 9 1 6) in Bulgaria, for in his biography it is
expressly stated " that he invented other clearer
letters than those which were invented by the

wise Cyrill " (ctro^iVaro koi ^^npoKx^pa? eTepov^ ypafi-
fiarwv vpos to cra(pe(rT€pov >/ of? e^evptv 6 trotpoi
KvptXXoi).* The Greek literature and the Greek
writing were generally known in Bulgaria at that
period, and it was only natural to adopt the better
known signs for their own language than to adopt
an entirely new alphabet, as the Glagolitic was,
taking from this only the signs not wanting in the
Greek alphabet,— just as was done many cen-
turies before, under the same circumstances and
at the same spot — in Bulgaria — by Bishop Ulfilas
when he invented the so-called Gothic alphabet.

Not so, however, with the order and the names
of the letters ; they were both transferred from one

* Milcloaiah, Algemeine Encyclop^edle, Ersch iind Gruber, vol. liviii.
I8S9, p. 413.

THE GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET. 213

to the other ; the Glagolitza was changed into the
Cyrillitza with respect only to what belongs to
the form ; the rest remained unchanged. The
letters of the alphabet serve further as ciphers
indicating the numbers, the value depending upon
the place the letter occupies in the alphabet. By
this numerical value attributed to the letters the
order of the alphabet has been maintained.

More complete than the Cyrillitza is the Gla-
golitza, which numbers forty signs, as the plate at
the end of the book shows. There are the forms of
both alphabets, together with others to which I
shall refer hereafter.

I now give the name of every letter, with its
translation, numerical value, and pronunciation,
indicating at the same time which letter does not
exist in the Cyrillitza and vice versa. The num-
ber assigned to them corresponds entirely with
the number in the plate, and is the same as that
adopted by Kopitar and Miklosich : —

1. azti : ego, i, a.

2. bukiivi : littera, 2, b.

3. ved^ : scio, 3, v.

4. glagoli : loquere, 4, g.

5. dobro : bonum, 5, d.

6. esti : est, 6, e.

7. ziv^te : vivite, 7, z (English j).

8. zelo : yalde, 8, dz.

9. zemiya : terra, 9, z.

10. ile : qui, 10, i

11. i 20, i.

214 APPENDIX B.

12. dya 30, dy (only OlagoL)

13. kako : qnomodo, 40, k.

14. lyudiye : homines, 50, 1.

15. myislete : cogitate, 60, m.

16. nasi: noster, 70, n.

1 7. on\i : ille, 80, o.

18. pokoy : qoies, 90, p.

19. rici: die, 100, r.

20. slovo : Terbum, 200, s.

21. tvrudo : durum, 300, t.

22. ukii: doctrina(?), 400, u.

23. Mtii 500, f (pb).

24. cb^r^ : 600, b.

25. otii : ab, 700, 6.

26. Sta 800, st (sbt).

27. ci 900, c (tz).

28. Sriivi : Tennis, 1000, 5 (cb).

B (sb).
ti (a dull sound).

ay.

i.

^ (a kind of yect).
yu.

ye )

«- \ (nasal vowels).

J?-

z (only Cyrill.)

ps (only Cyrill.)

tb.

u.

The translation is given after Miklosich. Tlie
strange mixture of substantives, adverbs, and verbs,
in different moods and tenses, indicates clearly that

29.

&a :

30.

yerii:

31.

yerfiy :

32.

yeri :

33.

6ti

34.

yusii:

35.

36.

37.

(?n)

38.

(§n)

39«

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

THE GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET. 215

tliey must be corruptions of words not understood
by the people, who tried to bring tliem nearer to
their own understanding by the well-known pro-
cess of popular etymology. They became Slavo-
nised, if I may coin such a term.

This increased the perplexity, and thwarted every
effort made to solve the problem ; but even greater
was the difficulty with regard to the form.

It would be useless to summarise here all that
has been said on this subject.

Professor Miklosich, with his usual thoroughness
and mastery of his subject, has summed up the
whole matter and given the entire bibliography."
His opinion, of course, is of the greatest weight.
He proves the absolute dependence of the Cyrillitza
upon the Glagolitza, and considers the latter to be
the alphabet used by the apostles of the Slavonians
themselves. In order to explain why they accepted
such a complicated alphabet, Professor Miklosich
suggests that it may have previously existed and
been in use among the Slovenes, and that therefore
Cyril and Method adopted it. " Nevertheless,"
says Professor Miklosich, "this alphabet is not a
primitive and invented, but an adopted alphabet,
taken over from somewhere else," without, however,
giving us the slightest hint as to the alphabet from
whence it was derived.

• AllgemeiQe Eacjclopssdie of Erach nnd Gruber, vol, liviii., 1S59,
pp, 403-422, t, V. GlagolitiscL

2i6 APPENDIX B.

The decisive point of his utterance is that the
Glagolitza is an alphabet originally destined for
another language, and in later times adapted to
the Slavonian.

From this point of view only can we explain the
superfluous richness of signs observable in the
enumeration above. They were necessary in the
original, serving for the expression of some lan-
guage very rich in sounds, and taken over entirely
as it was, and adapted to the expression of the
Slavonic alphabet, itself very rich, but not nearly
so much so as the other.

This must be the starting-point of our inquiry*
That many have endeavoured to ascertain the origin
of the Glagolitza has already been mentioned.
Professor Miklosich reviews these opinions, and his
condemnation renders it unnecessary for us to
reiterate them and refute them. But after the
publication of that essay by Professor Miklosich
there appeared two other attempts, with which I
will now deal shortly.

The first is that of Mr. Taylor, who suggests
that the Greek cursive alphabet and the combina-
tion of signs in the tachygraphical writing of the
Greek might have served as a model for the Gla-
golitic. The comparison, however, shows such a
complicated mode of passing from one into the
other, that on formal grounds alone this idea must
be rejected. To this may further be added the fact

THE GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET. 217

that sounds like sh, ch, j, and others not existing
ia the Greek could not be borrowed from these,
even not as combinationa of letters. 0^ retained for
ever its sound as ct^, and only nowadays do we de-
compose the combined sounds into their elements
by physiological inquiries into the nature of human
speech, a process unheard of in ancient times, when
for each sound o-ne simple sign was used.

Not much better is the theory of Geitler, who
developed it in an elaborate and otherwise very
remarkable treatise.* He assumes that the strange
alphabet from which the Glagolitza is derived was
an old autochthonous Albanian alphabet, preserved
to the present time in a mutilated form in some
Albanian manuscripts. Not only the form of the
characters, but also their names are derived from
the Albanian. The first part has been thoroughly
annihilated by the profound criticism of Professor
Jagic ; t and as to the names, it will suffice to show
that some of them, considered by Geitler to be
Albanian, are Turkish elements of a very recent
origin, later than the fourteenth century, and there-
fore impossible to be of such an age as to be adopted
by Cyril in the eighth century, that is, sis centuries
before. So, for instance, Albanian meseletH, from
which he derives Slavonic rayslete, is plural of mesel,
Turkish, Arabic, and Hebrew maskal ; Albanian lula

* L. Geitaer, Die Albanesiaohen nod Slaviacheo Schritten, Wien, iSSj.
t Archiv f iic Slav. Philologie.

2i8 APPENDIX B.

is the Turkish lulek, pipe, with the same mes
and has nothing whatsoever to do with lyudye, &c.*

Once agreed upon that point, that the Glago-
litza is taken from another people, my view is that ]
we must seek to find at the time when Cjril ]
flourished such an alphabet, rich in sounds and J
not so far distant, tliat it could not easily be I
reached or known by Cyril.

Some, induced by an apparent similarity between |
the Glagolitic sh and gt with the Coptic, sought
the origin in the latter ; but, in addition to the
difficulty of proving Cyril's acquaintance with the .
Coptic, there is, moreover, no further similarity j
among all the remainder, consisting of thirty-eight 1
signs. This view may therefore be disregarded, i
The Latin and Greek, througli the scantiness of 1
sounds, and therefore of signs and difi"erence of )
form and order, also need not be brought under I
consideration, and it is quite another direction to j
which I turn in order to find the probable proto* J
type of the Glagolitza.

Nobody has up till now taken into consideratioBl
the Armenian alphabet and the other kindred 1
alphabet of Georgia, so rich in sounds and signs, ,j
that they are unequalled and unsurpassed by a
others.

The relationship and dependence of
litza upon this or another alphabet ak

' V. Geitlec, I. e., pp. 168-171.

THE GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET.

those regions is now for me beyond any doubt,

and I will endeavour to prove it in the following
pages.

Let us first examine the historical conditions and
establish the connection between Cyrd and these

As it has been said above {p. 136), Cyril was

brought up at the court of Constantinople, receiv-
ing the beat education, and hia knowledge of Eastern
languages was especially praised. One of the most
important Eastern languages of the time was the
Armenian, the language of a rich literature and a
powerful Church, often mixed up with ecclesiastical
disputes, and playing an important rdle in the
history of Manicbseism. It is further noteworthy
that the Armenians sent emissaries everywhere
challenging the orthodox, and the halls of the
palace in Byzantium resounded often enough with
their speeches and disputes.

There is no doubt that Cyril, the learned monk,
who himself was sent later on as an emissary to
the Khazars, and who took part at the conversion
of the Pannonian Slavonians, must have known
this language, spoken at the gates of Constan-
tinople.

It is no matter of consequence to ask now the
origin of the Armenian alphabet itself, but even
the history of this invention is so striking an
analogy to the history of the Glagolitza, that it is

aao APPENDIX B.

worth while to mention it here briefly, the morel
so as it also explains the apparent similarity be-
tween Coptic and Glagolitic characters,

AH the Dative writers are unanimous in ascribing 1
the invention of the present Armenian alphabet to |
the Bishop Mesnip (fifth century), who succeeded f
by these means in freeing himself from the Greek I
influence and establishing a genuine Armenian '
Church and literature. He first translated the
Bible into the Armenian language, thus formiiijj ]
the basis for the new literature.

There are now difi'crent views as to the question J
of the model taken by Mesrup for his new alphabet. I
I, for my own part, derive it in its essential parts, J
against the opinion of Mr. F. Miiller,* from theT
Zendie alphabet of the neighbouring Persians, with I
which the Armenians were avowedly well ac-J
quainted. One single glance suffices to show theJ
similarity between these two alphabets. But th&.B
Zendie is poor in signs, as the Persian dialect has 1
not so many sounds, and this want had to be 1
supplied from other sources. The chief source I
was here the Coptic alphabet. If we remember J
that some of Mesrup's prominent pupils, Moses of J
Chorene, the famous Armenian chronicler, and 1
others, spent a long time in Alexandria, then the I
difficulty arising from the distance between Arme-
nia and Egypt is easily removed. For they had 1

* Sitzungeberichte of the Aculem; of Yianiia, vol. xlviii. pp. 431-438. ,

THE GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET. 22t

been sent by their master to collate the oldest
Greek manuscripts of tbe Bible preserved in tbe
great library of Alexandria, with their translation
into Armenian. The only alphabet of a Christian
people rich in signs, and thus eerving their pur-
pose, was the Coptic, and so they took from it
the elements wanting to complete their own new
alphabet.

From Armenia this alphabet spread to the North,
and was soon adopted by the Georgians, who adapted
it to their own requirements, also changing here
and there the shape of the letters ; for instead of
being angular with sharp corners, they rounded
the edges and added spirals and flourishes. This
makes that alphabet somewhat more similar to the
Glagolitza, also characterised by its spirals aud
flourishes.

The same alphabet no doubt also spread in South
Russia, and most probably was known in the em-
pire of the Khazars, at that time very powerful,
and haviDg a language — judging from the other
Turko-Turanian languages to which this belonged
— rich in both vowels and consonants.

It is at least remarkable to find in a peculiar
Greek alphabet of Mariupol, discovered by the late
Dr. Blau,* the characteristic letter sh represented
the same way as in the Armenian alphabet,

* Zeitachrift dec Deatsch Morgealaadiscben GesellBcbaFt, vol. i
>, and vol "i" I6&-167.

233 APPENDIX B.

which ia the aame as we have noted here m^
Glagolitza, and hcuce in the Cyrillitza.

Our investigation would be much furthered if
anything written in the Kliazaric characters had ]
been preserved, such as it was used by them in ■
their proceedinga. Unfortunately we have only,
and this in a more modern copyj the ffebrew i
letter sent by the Khazars to Hisdai ibn Shaprub
in Spain. Also of Khazaric origin, and this time
genuine, I consider, is another Hebrew manuscript,
recently discovered and described by Professor ;
Harkavy, who does not, however, recognise its '
origin, and considers it, without any internal proof,
to be from Crete. As it waa a well-known alphabet,
and a Biblical text, there was no need to introduce
any diflerent letter, as ia the case when writing
down, even with the same characters, other foreign
worda or names. It ia therefore difficult to prove
the influence of a genuine alphabet. Nevertheleaa,
I think that, for instance, the peculiar flouriahed
m can be traced only to such an influence, as it offers
in the way of its upward spiral a atriking resem-
blance to the Armenian and Georgian m.

"What further induces me to aee in this MS. a
text written by a Khazar is that there is no differ-
ence made between ch (cheth) and k (he), unknown
also to the Karaims, who are surely remnants of the
Khazars, and so forth.

If I have insisted especially upon this point, it I

THE GLAGOUTIC ALPHABET. aaj

: the life of Cyril is also intimately con-
nected with the Khiizara, as he was sent thither by
the Emperor to convert them to Christianity.

His biography describes with many details his
stay at the conrt, and the disputations he had there
with Jews and Mohammedans,

Here, no doubt, already more or less acquainted
with the Armenian, he came across another eimi-
lar alphabet, and when he decided to compose a
special alphabet for his Slavonic translations, he
only adopted this alphabet as the most fitting for
its purpose. He followed also at the same time
the example given by Mesrup centuries before.
In this connection we can now explain the hitherto
unknown origin of the Glagolitic alphabet, and
we proceed to a minute examination to ascertain
how far the historical explanation is backed by
the similarity between the Glagolitza and an
alphabet closely resembling the Armenian and
Georgian.

If we now consider the foi'ty signs of the Glago-
litical alphabet in the annexed plates, we can easilj'
detach at least seven as composed from two other
primitive elements, thus reducing the total number
of signs to thirty-three. The composed are the
following: — No. 23, out of 17-1-30; 26, of 29+ 21 ;
31, of 30-1- 10; 38, of 17 + 37; 39> of II -1-37 or
of 6 -!- 37 ; 40, of 10 -I- 37 or 30 -I- 37 (Miklosich) ;
and, finally, 34, which seems to be composed of

224 APPENDIX B.

30 + 17 ; this latter turned on one side, Nos.
and 32 seem originally to be identical, but we leave
that for the moment unsettled. The elements of
combination are the vowels i, I (u), 51, g, forming,.
the peculiar Slavonic preyoted vowels. No. 26 is J
simply composed of the two elements sh — /.

It is now noteworthy that the vowel u is formed
of and II. We have further two doublets, viz., 1
Nos. 8 and 9, both representing a similar (2) sound, 1
and Nos. 10 and 1 r, both i. In this alphabet there J
are also two signs for o, Nos, 17 and 25 ; and what *
is more curious. No. 24, when compared with No. 4, 1
both g, although Miklosich admits a difference ■
between the two sounds. All these peculiarities I
point clearly to a foreign origin, where the alphabet J
consisted of at least the same number of si
and where none of these signs were doublets, 1
of them representing a distinct sound.

If we now examine the Armenian alphabet, we i
shall find it composed of thirty-six letters, out of
which three represent peculiar Armenian sibilants,
not to be met with in any other language, and not
to be distinguished from three other sibUants, ex-
cept by a stronger pronunciation. These are rightly I
considered to be doublets of c, z, and tz, and there- ^
fore left out, and we have thus the exactly correspond-
ing number of thirty-three letters, representing, as *
we shall soon see, the same sounds as the characters J
of the Ulagolitza, The similarity also extends to the I

THE GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET. 22;

curious facts noticed above. To begin with the
vowels, we find in the Armenian, too, the dull
vowels i, it (Glagol., Nos. 30, 32), and the charac-
teristic ^ (= No. 33); wefindfutther twice o(— Nos.
17. 25), and twice t{ = Nos. lo, ii), just as in the
Glagolitza, and also that one of the i signs is equally
employed as the consonant y, as No. 10 is employed
in the combination of Nos. 3 1 and 40. No. 3 1 has
an exact parallel in the Armenian ey. In the Arme-
nian WG have also a combined sign for u, consisting
of o and u, like the Greek o-v, and exactly the same
in the Glagolitza No. 22. The likeness in this case
goes much farther even, for, as Professor Miklosich
observes,* in old MSS, this letter is sometimes
written with the two signs of (No. 17), and in
the same way the Armenian w is nothing else but
the reduplication of the same sign u, a concordauce
which under no circumstances can be considered
as a merely accideutal one.

We pass now to the consonants, and see that
we have in the Armenian all the consonants of tho
Glagolitza. By this similitude we are even enabled
to settle two difficult questions as to the value
of No. 8 and the much disputed No. 12. To the
former corresponds the Armenian dz, and when used
in the Cyrillian transcription in Roumanian texts,
that sign actually indicates this sound. With re-
gard to the latter, we identify it with the pecuHar

236 APPENDIX B.

Armenian tlius described by Lepaius.* " The-1
letter 2 i^ ^'^^^ pronounced everywhere as the I
Arabic ghain /, although it is proved that it i
in many cases formerly, and stUl in the fifth cen-
tury, a kind of soft and more palatal I, distin-
guished from the stronger and more guttural I, the J
value of which is now that of our common l."f\
That is to say, that in the eighth century it repre- ■
sented a special kind of g. Supporting this isa
the view of Miklosich, who assigned the .
phonetical value to that Glagolitic sign.

Nearly the same thing is to be noted in thefl
Georgian alphabet, which, although a little different
in minor points, affords on the whole a much
greater similarity to the Glagolitza, According to
the wants of the language, the number of signs
was increased to thirty-eight, but five represent
aspirates, which being excluded, leave just thirty-,
three letters, corresponding to the Glagolitza. Wail
notice further the compound it, composed of o and t
as in the former. "We have here too the peculiar g,
and everything mentioned in discussing the Ar-
menian. But what is especially characteristic i
the order of the letters in this alphabet, which,
may say, is exactly the same as in the GIagolitza,J

* standard Alphabet, 2d edit,, 1B63, p. 134.

+ Of. also HUbsohmaun, Ueber Aussprache iind Umaohreibang c
AltarmeuiBchon. Zeitaobrift d. D. M, G., vol. \xx. i87D, pp. S3-73 i ^
Gardttauaan, Ueber den griechiBoben Uraptimg dea armeniachen Alpl
batea, ibid., pp. 74-Eo.

THE GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET. 237

and this is the second point on which we are now
going to touch in pursuing our inquiry as to the
relation of the Glagolitza to these alphabets. The
system followed in the arrangement of the Georgian
alphabet is that first come the letters correspond-
ing to the Semitic (Hebrew, Pbcenician), then the
Greek o-v, ip, j(> ^^d last of all the specific Georgian
sounds. Hence the presence of v (consonant) at the
beginning of the alphabet, at the same place where
the Hebrew vau stands, between e and z, while
the order is a little disturbed between n and r,
where ^ (short {e) ia introduced instead of s, and
q left out, which is added at the end. Here all the
kindred sounds are arranged after their affinity, the
gutturals together and the sibilants together ; and
the whole list fiuishes with two signs, given in the
transcription of Brosset as hoe and hoe*

Almost identical with this is the order of the
letters in the Glagolitza. Only in the Georgian and
in the latter we find the v at the beginning of the
alphabet, although not in exactly the same place.
The difi'erence to be observed in the Glagolitza
comes from the system of its arranger, who, follow-
ing his original, grouped the kindred sounds to-
gether, so that we have v and b; z, ch, and z; i and i;
g and h ; tz, ch, and sh ; u, uy, and % and all the
peculiar signs at the end ; the simple, as well as their

* p. Brosset, Elcmenti de la langae fjeorffientie, ParU, 1S37, p. 45 ; c/.
LepaiUB, I. r., pp. 138-140.

338 APPENDIX B.

combinations with y, and lastly the e and a, corre-
sponding, as I believe, exactly to the Georgian
hoe and hoe. If we now disregard the derange-
ment caused by this classification, we find the I
alphabet in general following exactly the samo I
line as the Georgian, with which it corresponds; 1
also in the numerical value of the letters, varying
only little from it, for the same cause.

This shows a coincidence which, as I repeat,
can under no circumstances be accidental, and
proves, on the other hand, that the Glagolitza i
not merely a copy, but a calculated adaptation^
from a model closely resembling the Georgian and
Armenian, being nearer to the former, but not en-
tirely different from the latter. In the annexed
plate I now, in conclusion, also give the graphic I
proof of the formal identity or resemblance. Tof
each Glagolitic letter I have compared that which 1
closely resembles it, taken from the two alphabets, J
the Georgian and Armenian, to which I have joined '
the transcription.

In expressing this my view as to the origin of J
the Glagohtic alphabet, I have confined m;
only to probabilities, and have neither ventured ttr
engage in rash surmises, nor endeavoured to ex-
plain every difficulty. I renounced, therefore, the
task of tracing also the origin of the names of the
letters, and I have left their explanation to others,

THE GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET, 229

I, for my own part, seeing in them undoubted
corruptions from a foreign language.

It was sufficient for me to approach the whole
question from a direction quite diflferent to any
that has hitherto been taken by scholars, and to
settle the more importent partlthe origin of the
form and order of the Glagolitic alphabet.

THE END.

PRINTED BY BALLANTVNB, HANSON AND CO.
EDINBURGH AND LONDON.

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CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

BiCTioH T.— On the Koccb, BddA, and DIjItuAI Tribes.— Fart I. T(
Part II. GnmmAr.— Part 111. Tbelr Origin, Location, Numberi, Cree(
Cbaracter. sud Condition, ivitli a Gensral Description of tlio Climate tbi
— Appendix.

BICTIOB 11.— On Himalayan Etbnoloey,— I. Comparatlra Totsbulary
Buagea of the Broken Tribes of S«pil.— II. VMaliulaiy ol the Dlaleota of inn nirani.
LuiguBge.— III. Qmmmatic^ Analysis of Ihe Viyu Langitase. The VAyii Oinmmar.
— tV. ADalyniBoftheBihlngDlalooliar tbe KiranU language. Tbe BihlngOnm-
mar— V. On tho Viyu or Hsju Tribe of the Central eijna!(ij«.— VI. On the Kiranll
Trlbs of the Central Bimidllys.

CONTENTS OP VOL. II.

aEcnoH IIL— On the Ahorlgluss o( North-Eaitem India. Comparative Vac
of the Tlbecan, Bddd, and Qkrii Tonguea.

SimoH IV.— Aboriginea of tha North-B»elem Frontier.

Beonos V.— Aborigines of tho Eastern Frontier.

SECfTioH VI.— The IndtvCblnese Borderen!, and their connection '
layana end libotam. CompMslivo Vocabulary o( Indo-Cblneae Bordt
Comparative VoeabiUary of Indo-OhlnoM Borderers in Tenaaeerlni.

SicTioH VIL— The MnngoUau Affinltiea of tbe Cancaa:
lyili of Caueasian and Idonnoliaa Words.

Section VIIL— PhyBlial Typo of Tibetans.

Heotiuh IX.— Tbe Aborigltiea of Central India. — Cos
AbojiEfinal LenguagH of Central India. — AboriKlnea of 1
laiy of aoma of tlia Dialeeta of the HiU and WanderingTr
— AbDriginea of the Kil^rli, nltb Bemarka on their Affinitiea—Supplen;
Nllgitian VoeabulariaB.- The Abongines of Southern India and Ceylon.
_8tiCTioii_^K.— Route of Kepalese Mission 10 Pekin, with KEmarkB on t

icabulaty.—
1, Cuatoma,
ay dwoU In.

ef the Iad-

dth tliB Hlmi-
rors in Arakan.

— Comparlaon and Ana-

itive Vocabulary of tha
Kortl

id Platen

SicTioK XI.— Boute
Siklm.- MoBioranduui

Bum OS XIL— Some
tbeStiiteaf Nep&L

Section 211L— Tbe 1
Njpaleie.

If Tibet.

D Kithin&ndd, the
to tbe Seven Coai
ta of the Byatema

aj.ilal of Nopil, ti
of Nepftl.
of Law and Police .

rjeellng la

cognised In

ir denominated Hindustan,

tho Angllciata Annvered s
Being Lattera on Iba Education of tho People of ludhi.

" For the atudy of tho lessknoivn races of Indln Mr. Brian Hodgaon'a ' Miecelline-
ouaEaaaya' will bo found very valuable both to tuo philologiaC and the cthuologiat.

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LINGUISTIC AND ORIENTAL ESSAYS.

WalTTEN FKOU THE YEAR 1B46 TO 1878.

Bl ROBERT NEEDHAM GUST,

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BUDDHIST BIRTH STORIES; or, Jataka Tales.

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For tlie first time Edited in the oiigiDol rali.

Kt V. FAUSEOLL ;

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Translation. Volmne I.

"Thsae nre talcs supposed to hare been toldbjtlis BiiddbH of what he bad MSB

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,..^ular beliefs of the commoa peoplo of Aryan tribta,

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social lit

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if the tropics, 1

ind bis art so that
>s done Id his apl
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typified."—

Shlyinto
Id pUH-

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THE MIND OF MENCIUS ;

Ob, political ECONOMY FOUNDED UPON MOEAL

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HENciua.

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Ill or tlie Bbagncnc

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THE QUATRAINS OF OMAR KHATTAH.

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•—'•"— "- '-mnsin monta. is or imnortancB bx noinir ( ., j„^„

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THE SARVA ■ DAKSANA - SAMGRAHA ;

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Bt madhava achakya.

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— *' — naively paar— '■ — "■'■- --' — -■--' '-^ '

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TI[.— On the Tracoii of the Hindu Language end Literature extant amonsst the
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VIE!.— Some Account of the Elastic Oum Vine of Frince-Vsles Island. By Jamas
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IX.— & Botasiol OsMFliition of UrcsoU Ela^tica, or Cwutchouc Vino of Sumatn
and Pulo-Piuang. By WUliiini Koiburgh, M.D.

X.— An Aocoimt of " "

Sutnitra. By John Ci

By WiUlM

Xlt,-

XV.-

Inhabitan

le BpedsB of Pepper i
muii-, M.D.
□ [Auguogae and Literaturt

Po^r, or NasBsu Islanda, lying off
und on Princo-Waloa IslBnd.
idu-Chlnese Nations. By J.

>r an Omng-Outong of ram&ckablo height foui

Abel, M.D.

I tha Geologies! Appairancoa and QonenJ ]

MilayiQ Penfnaula, By Captsin Juniea Low.

rt Sketch of the Oealagy of Pulo-Piming and the Nelebb

XVI.— Climate of Singapore.

XVII, -InacrlpHon on the Jetty at Singapore.

XVIII.- KitTMt of a Latter from Colonal J. Low.

XIS — InaerlpMou at Singapore.

XX.— An Account of Several Inaorlpticns found in Pr

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XXI.— Koto on the Inicription

XXIL— On an Inacrlptlon from Koddah. By Lieut.-Cul. Low.

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XXIV.— Sueeino t Roviow of the Obaarrations of the Tidoa in the Indian Archipelago.

XXV,— Beport on the Tin of the Protinoa of Mergul. By Capt. 0. B. Tromenhcero.

XXVI,— Raportun the UangiincaeofMorguiProiince. By Onpt. G. B. Tremenheare.

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XXVlII.~3e<x>nd Report on the Tin of Mergul. By Capt. G. B. Tremenhaerav

XXIX.— Annlysia of Iron Oraa ftom Tavoy and Mergui, and of Limeitona from
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XXX,— Heport of a Vlilt to tl
Southern Portion of the Tenasee

XXXI.— Report on a Route from the Houth of tha Palichan to Krau. and thence
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XXXII.— Report, 4o., from Capt, O.B.Tramenheere on tha Price of MergtUTinOre,

XZXIII.— Romarke on the Different Species of Orans-utan. By E. Blylh.

XXXIV.— Further RomarkB. By E. Blyth.

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XXXVril.-Soaia Acoount pf tha Botantai,! OoUaatlon brought from the Esatwird,
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KSSIX.— Ou tha Flit-Hornad Taurine Cattlo of B.E. Asia, By E, Biyth.

XL,— Note, by MBior-General G, B, Tremcuhocro,

Oeneral Index.

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THE LIFE OF HIUEN TSIAJTG.

Bi- THE .SHAMANS HWUI LI and YEN-TSUNG.

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A SKETCH OF THE MODERN LANaUAGES OF
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Br R. N. CUST, LL.D.

n Languages of

ESSAYS ON THE INTERCOURSE OF THE CHINES]

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